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The 

Theory  and  Practice 

OF 

Working  Plans 

(FOREST  ORGANIZATION) 


BY 


A.  B.  RECKNAGEL,  B.A.,  M.F. 

Professor  of  Forestry 
Cornell  University 


SECOND  EDITION,  THOROUGHLY  REVISED 
FIRST    THOUSAND 


NEW    YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS 

London:   CHAPMAN  &  HALL,   Limited 
1917 


Copyright,  1913,  191 7,  by 
A.  B.  RECKNAGEL 


PRESS   OF 

BRAUNWORTH    It    CO. 

BOOK    MANUFACTURERS 

BROOKLYN,   N.   Y. 


N.  C.  state  G^i 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION 

The  reception  accorded  the  first  edition  of  this  work  has 
encouraged  me  to  prepare  a  revised  and  enlarged  second  edition. 
In  doing  so  I  have  profited  from  four  main  sources,  not  open 
at  the  time  of  writing  the  original  text. 

The  first  of  these  is  the  work  of  the  Committee  on  Termi- 
nology of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  which  has  gone  far 
to  standardize  the  nomenclature.  It  has  been  my  privilege  to 
serve  as  chairman  of  the  sub-committee  on  Organization, 
Mensuration,  and  Management,  and  I  have  derived  the  greatest 
help  from  the  hearty  cooperation  of  my  colleagues  both  within 
and  without  the  Committee.  The  terminology  of  the  second 
edition  has  thus  been  brought  into  accord  with  the  best  usage 
of  to-day. 

The  second  great  source  of  assistance  is  the  helpful  criticism 
engendered  by  the  first  edition.  While  it  has  not  proved 
expedient  to  adopt  all  the  suggestions,  nevertheless,  the  faults 
noted  have  been  corrected  just  so  far  as  possible  without  de- 
stroying the  originality  and  coherence  of  the  work.  In  a  text 
on  forest  organization,  a  detailed  discussion  of  the  apphcation 
of  silvicultural  methods,  of  the  pros  and  cons  of  various  kinds 
of  rotations  and  similar  material  of  a  general  character  does  not 
seem  in  place,  any  more  than  would  a  didactic  attempt  to  say: 
such  and  such  a  method  of  determining  the  cut  should  be  used 
with  such  and  such  species,  or  forests.  The  time  is  not  yet 
ripe  for  such  generalizations;  they  must  wait  until  the  practice 
of  forest  management  in  America  has  advanced  further  than 
to-day.  A  new  feature  of  this  edition  is  the  "  Correlation  of 
Silvicultural  Methods  and  Methods  of  Determining  the  Cut," 
which  is  as  far  as  the  author  feels  justified  in  going  along  these 
lines. 

The  third  source  of  assistance  has  been  the  experience  of 


IV  PREFACE 

teaching  forest  management  for  the  past  four  years.  Nothmg 
so  quickly  reveals  the  defects  of  a  book  as  using  it  for  a  text. 
To  this  experience  are  traceable  the  new  diagrams  and  the  am- 
pHfication  of  the  section  on  the  normal  forest  and  its  attributes. 

Last  but  by  no  means  least  of  the  sources  of  assistance,  has 
been  the  wealth  of  new  data  revealed  in  the  forestry  literature 
of  the  past  four  years.  This  has  made  it  possible  to  diversify 
the  examples  used  to  illustrate  the  various  methods  of  regulating 
the  cut  by  introducing  other  species  than  the  overworked 
western  yellow  pine  of  the  first  edition. 

Throughout,  I  have  endeavored  to  revise  and  improve  the 
original  text  so  as  to  embody  all  the  recent  developments  in 
forest  organization.  In  doing  so  I  have  drawn  freely  on  the 
work  of  my  colleagues  in  the  profession  of  forestry  and  I  take 
this  occasion  to  acknowledge  my  indebtedness. 

A.  B.  Recknagel. 
Ithaca,  N.  Y. 

Jan.,  1917. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION 

This  book  does  not  pretend  to  present  any  original  theories 
of  Forest  Organization,  but  merely  the  best  of  European  efforts 
along  this  line  adapted  to  the  present  needs  of  American  forestry. 
The  necessary  data  were  gathered  in  the  course  of  a  year's  study 
abroad,  and,  in  their  application,  the  experience  gained  in  five 
years  of  similar  work  for  the  forest  service  in  various  parts  of 
the  United  States  was  constantly  kept  in  mind.  The  theoret- 
ical part  has,  therefore,  been  reduced  to  the  minimum;  simi- 
larly, the  description  of  such  intensive  methods  of  regulating 
the  yield  as  that  by  area  and  volume  in  periods  has  been  merely 
sketched  for  the  sake  of  completeness,  since  its  appHcation  to 
America  is  of  the  far  distant  future,  if  ever.  In  a  word,  while 
sacrificing  nothing  to  the  completeness  necessary  in  a  text- 
book, the  aim  has  been  to  make  the  book  of  value  not  only  to 
the  student,  but  also  to  the  practising  forester,  and  hence  theory 
has  in  each  case  been  subordinated  to  practice. 

It  will  be  ample  reward  for  the  time  and  labor  spent,  if  this 
book  takes  its  humble  place  in  the  growing  list  of  American 
text-books  on  forestry. 

Grateful  acknowledgment  is  made  to  those  who  so  unself- 
ishly assisted  in  the  collection  of  the  subject-matter. 

A.  B.  RECKNAGEL. 
Dresden,   September,   1912, 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Preface  to  the  First  Edition v 

Preface  to  the  Second  Edition iii 

Introduction xiii 

Scope  of  Working  Plans xiii 

Sphere  of  Working  Plans xiv 


PART  ONE 

Foundations  of  Working  Plans 
chapter  i 

Preliminary  Basis 

Section  i .  The  Normal  Forest  and  its  Attributes I 

The  Increment 3 

The  Growing  Stock 6 

Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes 14 

Section  2 .  Forest  Survey 20 

Prehminary  Work 20 

Survey  of  Area 21 

Timber  Estimates 22 

Requisites 22 

Base  Lines 23 

The  Strips 24 

Topographic  Notes 27 

Time  of  Survey  and  Estimate 27 

Use  of  Yield  Tables 28 

Cost 28 

Forest  Description 29 

Division  of  Area 37 

Designations  of  Divisions 39 

Boundaries  of  Divisions 40 

Maps  and  Tables 42 

Stand  Table 47 

Stock  Table 48 

General  Stand  Table 50 

Age  Class  Tables 51 

vii 


VUl  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Section  3.  Determination  of  Method  of  Treatment 53 

Governing  Conditions 53 

The  Unit  of  Regulation 53 

Object  of  Management 54 

Silvicultural  IVIethod  of  Management 55 

The  Rotation 58 

CHAPTER  II 
Regulation  of  Cut 

Definition 66 

Section  i .  Determination  of  Cut 67 

By  Area  (i) 69 

By  Volume.     Von  Mantel's  Method  (2) 72 

Methode  de  Masson  (3) 74 

By  Current  Annual  Increment  (4)  (Swiss  Method) 74 

Formula  Methods:  Austrian  Formula  (5) 78 

Karl's  Method  (6) 81 

Hundeshagen's  Method  (7) 85 

Breymann's  Method  (8) 86 

Heyer's  Method  (9) 88 

Summary  and  Comparison  of  the  Formula  Methods 91 

French  Method  (10) 92 

Indian  Method  (11) 98 

Diameter  Class  Method  (12) 100 

By  Area  and  Volume.    Methode  du  Controle  (13) 106 

Direct  Method  (14) 108 

Hufnagl's  Method  (15) no 

The  Stand  Method  (16) 112 

The  Period  Methods  (17) 116 

American  Method  (18) 121 

Review  of  the  Methods  of  Determining  the  Cut 1 24 

Correlation  of  Silvicultural  Methods  and  Methods  of  Determining  the  Cut  126 

Section  2.  Distribution  of  Cut 129 

Selection  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 130 

Mapping  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 131 

Cutting  Series 132 

Plan  of  Cutting 133 

General  Cutting  Plan 134 

Annual  Cutting  Plan 136 

Section  3.  Regulation  in  Special  Cases 137 

I.  Regulation  of  Abnormal  Forests 137 

II.  Regulation  of  Transition  Forests 139 

III.  Regulation  of  Wood-lots 141 

IV.  Regulation  of  Turpentine  Forests 142 


CONTENTS  ix 


CHAPTER  III 

The  Working-Plan  Docximent 

PAGE 

Section  i.  Contents  and  Form 144 

1 .  Orientation 146 

2.  Foundation 147 

3.  Recommendation 150 

4.  Regulation 151 

Section  2.  Outlines  for  Working  Plan 152 

•  A.  Prussian  Outline 153 

B.  Saxon  Outline 154 

C.  American  Outline  (suggested).     Complete  Forest  Plan 155 

Section  3.  The  Planting  Plan 159 

General  Planting  Plan 161 

Annual  Planting  Plan 162 

Section  4.  Control  and  Revision  of  Working  Plan 164 

Control  Book 165 

PART  TWO 

Practice  of  Working  Plans 
chapter  i 

In  Europe 

Section  i.  Germany 171 

I.  Prussia 171 

II.  Bavaria 181 

III.  Saxony 193 

IV.  Wiirttemberg 197 

V.  Baden 198 

VI.  Alsace-Lorraine 202 

Section  2.  France 207 

Division  of  Area 208 

Method  of  Determining  the  Cut 209 

Distribution  of  the  Periodic  Cutting  Areas 211 

Determination  of  the  Allowed  Annual  Cut 212 

Section  3.  Austria 213 

Division  of  Area 216 

Estimates  and  Forest  Description 218 

Determination  of  the  Cut 221 

Control  and  Revision  of  the  Working  Plan 222 

Section  4.  R6sum6 224 


X  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  n 
In  America 

PAGE 

Section  i.  Early  Beginnings 226 

Section  2.  Reconnaissance 227 

Current  Outline  for  Forest  Working  Plans 228 

Section  3.  Present  Procedure 237 

Forest  Plans 238 

Preliminary  Plans 240 

Working  Plans 244 

Annual  Plans 247 

Outline  for  the  Plan  of  Silvicultural  Management 250 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Plate  I. — Cutting  Series  and  Compartment  Lines  in  Spruce,  Saxony. 

Frontispiece 

PAGE 

Plate  II. — A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Party,  Florida 22 

Plate  III. — A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Camp,  Florida 28 

Plate  IV. — Fig.  i.  A  Compartment  Reproduced  by  Shelterwood  Cutting, 
Baden.  Fig.  2.  A  Compartment  Reproduced  by  Selection 
Border  Cutting,  Wurttemberg 56 

Plate  V. — Road  Forming  a  Compartment  Boundary  Line,  Saxony 194 

Plate  VI. — A  Burned  Area,  Forming  a  Subcompartment,  Arizona 248 


Fig.  I. — Sketch  Map  of  part  of  a  Block,  showing  Compartments,  Sub-com- 
partments, Age  Classes,  and  Cutting  Series 44 

Fig.  2. — Division  of  a  Prussian  Forest  into  Compartments 45 

zi 


INTRODUCTION 

Forest  management  may  be  broadly  defined  as  the  applica- 
tion of  forestry  in  the  conduct  of  the  business  of  a  forest.  Forest 
organization,  a  subdivision  of  forest  management,  deals  with  the 
principles  of  organizing  a  forest  for  business.  Forest  organiza- 
tion may,  therefore,  be  defined  as  that  branch  of  forest  man- 
agement which  concerns  itself  with  organizing  a  forest  property 
for  management,  ordering  in  time  and  place  the  most  advan- 
tageous use  of  the  property,  usually  with  the  ultimate  aim  of 
securing  a  sustained  yield.* 

In  order  to  have  a  definite  scheme  for  the  conduct  of  opera- 
tions on  a  tract  so  as  to  secure  most  effectively  the  objects 
desired  by  the  owner,  a  working  plan  is  formulated.  This  may 
be  defined  as  the  plan  or  plans  under  which  a  given  forest  prop- 
erty is  to  be  continuously  managed. 

SCOPE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

In  its  broadest  sense  a  complete  forest  working  plan  deals 
not  only  with  silvicuUural  management  of  the  timber  resources, 
but  may  cover  any  or  all  of  the  following  subjects: 

1.  General  administration. 

2.  Silvicultural  management. 

3.  Grazing  management. 

4.  Permanent  improvements. 

5.  Forest  protection. 

6.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

*  The  term  forest  regulation  covers  the  same  idea,  but,  since  it  suggests  police 
and  administrative  prescriptions  seems  less  desirable  except  for  that  part  of 
organizing  which  concerns  itself  with  regulating  the  cut. 

xiii 


Xiv  INTRODUCTION 

Since  the  prime  object  of  any  forest  is  the  growing  of  timber, 
the  silvicultural  management  is  the  most  important;  it  is  also 
the  most  difficult.  The  present  work  will,  therefore,  confine 
itself  to  this  phase. 

SPHERE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

The  working  plan  is  not  confined  to  such  forests  as  are 
managed  with  the  idea  of  a  sustained  yield,*  but  is  equally 
adapted  to  the  exploitation  forest;  i.e.,  forests  which  are  to  be 
logged  within  the  next  ten  or  twenty  years.  As  in  every  other 
business  the  advantages  of  systematization  are  obvious;  the 
working  plan  secures  these  advantages.  At  the  same  time  it 
is  usually  to  the  interest  of  the  owner  to  leave  the  tract  in  as 
favorable  a  condition  as  possible  for  future  growth  without 
the  undue  expenditure  of  time,  timber,  or  money.  The  working 
plan  secures  this  by  so  organizing  the  logging  operations  that 
the  natural  reproductive  powers  of  the  forest  are  brought  into 
full  play  instead  of  being  nullified  by  the  fortuities  of  hap- 
hazard and  often  unnecessarily  destructive  logging. 

The  sphere  of  forest  organization  therefore  embraces  all 
forests  and  is  appHcable  to  all  classes  of  owners,  large  and 
small. 

*  Sustained  yield:  the  yield  or  cut  of  timber  from  a  forest  which  is  managed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  permit  the  continuous  removal  of  an  approximately  equal 
volxune  of  timber  annually  or  periodically  (equal  to  the  increment). 


PART   ONE 
FOUNDATIONS  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


Foundations  of  Working  Plans 


CHAPTER  I 

PRELIMINARY  BASIS 

SECTION  ONE 

THE  NORMAL  FOREST  AND  ITS  ATTRIBUTES 

At  the  very  root  of  forest  organization  lies  the  idea  of  a 
normal  forest;  that  is,  a  standard  with  which  to  compare 
an  actual  forest  to  bring  out  its  deficiencies  for  sustained  yield 
management;  a  forest  with  normal  age  classes,  in  size  and  dis- 
tribution, normal  increment,  and  normal  growing  stock. 

Normal  distribution  of  age  classes  requires  that  separate 
age  classes  exist  which  will  mature  during  each  year,  or  longer 
period,  of  the  rotation,  occupying  areas  whose  yield  will  equal 
the  same  per  cent  of  the  total  yield  of  the  forest  for  the  rota- 
tion as  the  period  bears  to  the  rotation.  Thus,  for  a  given 
decade  in  a  hundred-year  rotation,  the  area  maturing  should 
yield  one-tenth  of  the  yield  of  the  forest  during  one  hundred 
years.  Normal  age  class  distribution  in  the  strict  sense  of  actual 
location  means  such  distribution  of  age  classes  as  will  permit 
annual  or  periodic  fellings  to  be  made  without  damage  to 
adjoining  stands. 

Normal  increment  is  the  best  increment  attainable  by 
given  species  on  given  sites. 

Normal  growing  stock  is  the  amount  of  material  represented 
by  the  stands  in  a  normal  forest. 

Such  a  normal  forest  probably  does  not  exist;  it  is  merely 
1 


2  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

a  theoretical  ideal  towards  which  to  strive.  Assuming,  there- 
fore, that  every  forest  is  more  or  less  abnormal,  it  is  necessary 
to  determine  the  degree  of  abnormality  in  the  foUowing  direc- 
tions : 

1.  Increment. 

2.  Growing  Stock. 

3.  Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes. 

Diagram  A 

F  


In  this  connection  it  should  be  noted  that  while  normaHty  in 
I  and  3  of  themselves  result  in  normality  in  2,  the  reverse  is 
by  no  means  the  case.  A  normal  growing  stock  may  exist  in  a 
forest  with  only  a  single  age  class.     Valuable  as  its  determina- 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  3 

tion  is,  therefore,  it  should  never  be  used  as  the  sole  criterion 
of  regulating  the  cut.  This  may  be  shown  diagrammatically 
as  on  page  2. 

The  Increment 

Increment  (syn.  accretion,  growth)  may  be  defined  as  the 
increase  in  diameter,  sectional  area,  height,  volume,  quality  or 
value  of  a  tree  or  a  stand. 

Three  principal  kinds  of  increment  are  distinguished: 

Volume  increment  is  the  increase  in  volume  of  a  tree  or 
stand. 

Quality  increment  is  the  increase  in  value  per  unit  of  volume 
due  to  its  augmented  intrinsic  worth. 

Price  increment  is  the  increment  in  the  sale  value  of  forest 
products  independent  of  quality  increment,  due  to  market  con- 
ditions. 

Increment  is  further  differentiated  as  current  annual  incre- 
ment  =  the  increment  for  a  specific  year  (abbreviation  "  C.A.I."). 
Periodic  increment  =  the  increment  during  a  specified  period  of 
years;  mean  annual  increment  =  the  total  increment  divided 
by  the  age  (abbreviation  "M.A.I.");  periodic  annual  incre- 
ment =  the  increment  for  a  specified  period  of  years  divided  by 
the  number  of  years  in  the  period,  usually  used  in  lieu  of  the 
current  increment. 

The  determination  of  the  increment  is  the  province  of  forest 
mensuration;  without  trespassing  on  this  subject,  so  admirably 
covered  in  Mr.  Graves'  textbook,*  it  is  worth  while  to  consider 
the  matter  solely  in  its  relation  to  forest  organization. 

Not  every  method  of  regulating  the  cut  requires  the  deter- 
mination of  the  volume  increment;  e.g.,  the  Method  of  Von  Man- 
tel or  the  Methode  de  Masson.  Again,  it  is  possible  to  regulate 
the  cut  by  increment  alone  (Swiss  Method).  But  most  methods 
of  regulating  the  cut  require  a  determination  of  the  increment. 

The  normal  increment  is  the  increment  of  stands  fully  stocked 

*  "  Forest  Mensuration,"  Henry  Solon  Graves.  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  New 
York,  1906. 


4  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

or  normal.  However,  regulation  of  cut  is  based  upon  actual, 
not  normal  increment,  hence  actual  increment  becomes  the  basis 
of  the  normal  forest.  Where  the  real  increment  is  to  be  taken 
from  yield  tables,*  the  values  given  in  the  table  must  be  reduced 
by  the  actual  factor  of  density,  since  yield  tables  are  always 
for  fully  stocked  stands. 

Where  yield  tables  are  not  available,  the  increment  must 
be  determined  on  the  ground,  either  by  applying  the  increment 
per  cent  of  representative  trees  of  the  stand,  or  else  by  calipering 
sample  areas  and  figuring  their  increment  by  means  of  diameter- 
age  and  diameter-volume  tables.  The  former  (and  yield  tables) 
is  better  for  nearly  even-aged  stands;  the  latter  method  for 
uneven-aged  stands. 

Where  diameter-age  tables  are  lacking,  stump  analyses 
can  be  made. 

For  determining  current  annual  increment  the  use  of  an 
increment  borer  is  deserving  of  wider  popularity  than  it  has 
heretofore  enjoyed  in  America.  Where  no  increment  borer  is 
obtainable,  the  representative  trees,  selected  according  to  any 
of  the  standard  methods  (Draudt,  Urich,  etc.)  can  be  cut  into 
at  breast  height  and  the  rings  on  the  last  inch  of  radius  counted 
on  the  horizontal  under-cut.  Either  Schneider's  or  Pressler's 
formulae  may  then  be  applied. 

Schneider's  formula: 

p  =  ^—j  (or  450  or  500  according  as  the  height-growth  of  the 
nd 

tree  is  poor,  average,  or  good), 

where  /)  =  the  current  annual  increment  per  cent; 

n  =  number  of  rings  of  annual  growth  in  the  last  inch  of 
radius; 
and      d  =  diameter  breast  high,  in  inches. 


*  Yield  table:  A  tabular  statement  of  the  volume  of  a  stand  of  specified  char- 
acter per  unit  of  area.  This  is  usually  constructed  for  units  of  one  acre  and 
for  intervals  of  ten  years. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  5 

The  growth  per  cent  must  always  be  translated  into  figures 
of  actual  volume.     For  example: 

A  spruce  tree  28  inches  in  diameter  at  breast  height,  of 
average  height-growth,  shows  8  rings  in  the  last  inch,  bored  at 
breast  height.  The  increment  per  cent  according  to  Schneider's 
formula  is 

p  =  —^ —  =  2  per  cent. 
^     28X8        ^ 

Assuming  a  stand  of  2400  feet  board  measure  per  acre,  the 
volume  increment  (current  annual)  would  be,  if  this  were  a 
sample  tree: 

2400  X  2 


100 
Pressler's  formula: 


=  48  board  feet  per  acre  per  annum. 


F— 2;     200 

V-\-v      n 


where  p  =  the  current  annual  increment  per  cent,  F  =  the  vol- 
ume now,  V  =  the  volume  ti  years  ago,  and  n  =  the  number  of  rings 
in  the  last  inch  of  diameter.     For  example: 

A  hemlock  tree  18  inches  in  diameter  at  breast  height,  of 
average  height-growth,  shows  an  average  of  twelve  years  to 
grow  the  last  inch  in  diameter.  The  volume  of  a  hemlock 
18  inches  d.b.h.  is  230  board  feet;  of  a  hemlock  17  inches 
d.b.h.  is  190  board  feet.*  The  increment  per  cent  accord- 
ing to  Pressler's  formula  is 

^     2^0— iQO,  200  o 

p=-^ ^X =1-587  per  cent. 

23o-fi9o      12 

Assuming  a  stand  in  which  there  were,  on  an  average,  .25 
hemlock  trees  18  inches  d.b.h.  per  acre,  with  a  corresponding 
volume  of  57.50  board  feet  per  acre,  the  volume  increment 
(current  annual)  would  be,  if  this  were  a  sample  tree: 

57.5X1.587  ,  J    r       ^ 

"^-^-^ ^— ^  =  .91  board  feet  per  acre  per  annum. 

100 

*  Volumes  based  on  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bulletin  152,  new  series,  Table  12. 


6  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

Pressler's  formula  is  exceedingly  valuable  for  regulating 
the  cut  in  mixed,  selection  forests.* 

Whether  the  current  annual  or  the  mean  annual  increment 
is  to  be  determined  depends  on  the  method  of  regulating  the 
cut  which  is  to  be  adopted.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  deter- 
mine painstakingly  the  exact  increment  of  each  stand,  but  rather 
correctly  to  approximate  the  increment  in  each  Working  Unit — 
i.e.,  the  unit  area  for  which  the  cut  is  to  be  regulated;  for  it 
is  evident  that  in  comparison  with  the  volume  of  merchantable 
timber  the  increment  is  a  relatively  small  amount.  It  is  a  use- 
ful fact  that  in  stands  approaching  maturity  (not  overmature) 
the  mean  annual  and  current  annual  increment  remains  vir- 
tually the   same  for  about  ten  years;  since  the  former  is  simply 

the  volume  divided  by  the  age  ( —  j ,  a  simple  way  is  thereby 

opened    to    approximate     the    current    annual    increment   in 
mature,   even-aged  stands. 

Dr.  Fernow  in  an  article  on  "  The  Sciences  Underlying 
Forestry,"  f    points  out  that  the  mean  annual  increment  per 

cent,  culminates  when  it  is  equal  to  — ,  in  which  a  =  age  of  the 

stand.     This    culmination    occurs    where    the    current    annual 
increment    curve    crosses    the    m.a.i.    curve.     Current    annual 

increment  =  ——    (Schneider),  hence  — -  = or  a  =  ^.     This 

nd  na        a  4 

is  a  handy  way  to  determine  the  age  of  maximum  volume 

production. 

The  Growing  Stock 

Growing  stock  is  a  general  term  referring  to  the  standing 
timber  upon  a  unit  of  area.  When  used  in  relation  to  problems 
of  management,  it  usually  refers  to  the  volume  of  standing 

*  See  "  A  Practical  Application  of  Pressler's  Formula,"  Forestry  Quarterly, 
Volume  XIV,  No.  2. 

t  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  VII.     No.  i,  pp.  23-33. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  7 

timber,  but  it  may  also  be  used  with  reference  to  the  density 
of  stocking,  age  classes,  etc. 

The  normal  growing  stock  (nv)  is  theoretically  attained 
from  normal  age  classes  and  normal  increment,  practically  it 
results  from  normal  age  classes  and  actual  increment. 

The  actual  growing  stock  (v)  is  that  which  is  present  on  a 
given  forest.     This  is  obtained  by  timber  estimating. 

The  normal  growing  stock  (nv)  is  obtained  (i)  by  formula, 
(2)  from  yield  tables. 

Diagram  B 
A, 1 1  I    r- ^ ^ , < ^ , , , , ^B 


y 

2 

: 

: 

y< 

X 

1 

•      S 

? 

g 

§ 

s 

s 

g 

§ 

A 

1 

i 

0 

^ 

2 
^ 

: 

-- 

: 

^ 

y^ 

: 

I 

1 

ii 

: 

: 

'- 

/f 

^    . 

2 

1 

i 

4 

'p 

^ 

^ 

S 

-- 

; 

-i 

s 

? 

s 

A 

y^i 

p, 

S 

1 

d 

s 

y 

^ 

/ 

a 

b 

C 

d 

'^ 

f 

0 

h 

i 

i 

fc 

I 

?n 

10        20        30        10        50        60        70        80        90       100      110      120       130      110 
Age  ia  Years 

(i)  The  normal  growing  stock  is  expressed  by  the  formula: 


where  W2)  =  normal  volume  of  growing  stock,  ;-  =  rotation,  and 
^  =  the  mean  annual  increment. 

(2)  nv  can  also  be  determined  directly  from  yield  tables 
constructed  by  measurements  of  fully  stocked  stands. 

m\ 


nv  then 


equals  nia 


+&+C  .  .  .  + 


8  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

where  n  equals  number  of  years  in  each  age  class  (step  of  the 
yield  table)  and  a,  b,  c,  .  .  .  w  =  the  volume  per  acre  given 
in  the  table  for  each  age  class. 

The  method  and  correctness  of  finding  nv  (i)  by  formula, 
(2)  by  summation  from  yield  table,  is  illustrated  on  the  accom- 
panying diagram  (Diagram  B).  For  the  values  as  given  in  this 
diagram,  which  is  based  on  a  yield  table  for  white  pine  con- 
structed by  W.  J.  McCarthy,  M.  F.,  in  the  vicinity  of  Ithaca, 
N.  Y.,  the  normal  growing  stock  would  be  as  follows,  assum- 
ing a  forest  of  1000  acres: 

(i)  nv  =  --; 
2 

r  =  rotation  =  140  years ; 

i  =  mean  annual  increment  per  acre  =  281.64  board  feet; 

140X281.64 

nv=^^ ^  =  19,715; 

2 

19,715X1,000  =  19,715,000  board  feet. 


(2)  nv  =  nla 


+b+c  .  .  .   +' 


nv 


w  =  number  of  years  in  each  step  of  yield  table  =10 
a,  b,  c,  .  .  .  are  volumes  per  acre  in  each  step 
of  yield  table; 

m  is  volume  per  acre  at  the  rotation  age  (140  years); 

=  10/3580+8600+12580    .    .    .  +^M3p\ 

1000  2,996,950,000  ,  J  r     i. 

=  2,996,95oX =   ^^    ^-^ =  21,407,000  board  feet. 

140  years  140 

A  further  comparison  of  the  two  methods  of  determining  the 
normal  growing  stock  is  given  in  the  following  table.  These 
calculations  are  based  on  Hanzlik's  yield  table  for  Douglas  fir 
as  given  in  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  XII,  No.  3,  pp.  442-445. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  9 

The  rotations  used  were  those  given  in  table  6,  p.  447  of  the 
article  cited.  Premise:  100,000  acres  of  Douglas  fir  in  western 
Washington. 


COMPARISON  OF  TWO  METHODS  OF  DETERMINING  nv 


Basis 

F.Q.  XII,  3. 

pp.  442-5- 

Rotation 
Age  (Yrs.) 

A.    By  Formula. 

B.    By  Summation. 

Cubic  Feet 
Whole  Stand. 

Board  Feet 

Merch. 
Only.— M 

Cubic  Feet 
Whole  Stand. 

Board  Feet 

Merch. 
Only.— M 

Per  cent  B 
is  of  A. 

Table  i 

Table  i 

52I 
IIO 

55 
no 

50 

"5 

470,600,000 

5,500,000 
3,700,000 
2,903,750 

334,134,615 

4,161,400 
2,890,900 
1,979.451 

77.8 
75-6 
98.2 
78.1 
76.8 
68  I 

Table  2 

Table  2 

404,250,000 

397,000,000 

Table  3 

Table  3 

Average 

282,500,000 

216,900,000 

79  I 

1  For  B  it  is  necessary  to  find  even  decade  values  and  then  take  proportional  part  of  the 
difference. 

From  this  table  one  might  conclude  that  the  formula  values 
should  be  reduced  by  20  per  cent,  i.e.,  multiplied  by  .8,  since 
summation  is  undoubtedly  the  more  accurate  method  of  the 
two. 

Many  authors  have  busied  themselves  with  the  problem 
of  how  to  determine  the  normal  growing  stock  most  accurately 
and  have  suggested  certain  departures.     Thus  Flury  *    claims 

that  the  formula,  nv  =  —  to  be  more  generally  correct,  should 

read: 

nv^cXrXi, 

in  which  c  is  a  variable  constant.  To  determine  this  constant, 
normal  yield  tables  are  necessary  which  may  be  summed  up 
by  the  formula 


nv  =  n\  a-\-h-{-c 


.   +- 


*  Schweizerische  Zeitschrift  fur  Forstwesen,  March,  1913,  briefed  For.  Quart. 
Vol.  XIII,  No.  I,  pp.  108-113. 


10  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

then,  since  cXrXi=S, 


rXt 


Flury  has  calculated  c  for  the  chief  species  of  Europe  and  for 
various  rotations  as  shown  in  the  following  table.  These  values 
are  for  timberwood  only. 


AVERAGE  VALUE  OF  CONSTANT  c 


Species 


Rotation  in  Years. 


80 


Spruce.    Swiss  foothills 

Swiss  mountains 

Prussia ■ 

Fir.    Wurttemberg 

Baden 

Scotch  pine.     North  German  Plains 
Prussia 

Beech.     Switzerland 

Prussia 


371 
316 
268 

205 
226 

387 
374 

276 
219 


463 
392 

354 

267 
317 

454 
456 

341 
316 


405 
379 


Applying  Flury's  constant  c  to  McCarthy's  white  pine 
yields  as  given  above,  the  factor  is  as  follows:  for  rotation  of 
30  years,  ^  =  .306;  for  40  years,  .365;  for  50  years,  .378;  for  60 
years,  .421;  for  70  years,  .452;  for  80  years,  .475;  for  90  years, 
.493;  for  100  years,  .507;  for  no  years,  .518;  for  120  years, 
.525;   for  130  years,  .536;   and  for  140  years,  .542. 

Thus  the  value  for  140  years  given  above  as  19,715,000 
board  feet  would  be  corrected  as  follows: 

w2)  =  cXrXi  =  . 542X140X281. 64 

=  .542X39,430X1000  (acres)  =  21,371,000  board   feet, 

which  compares  closely  with  the  value  21,407,000  board  feet 
found  by  summation  of  the  yield  table. 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


11 


It  is  obvious  that  where  the  constant  c  is  approximately 
.5  the  error  in  finding  nv  by  the  formula  method  is  least,  since 


nv  =  —  =  .$XrXt. 
2 

It  is  also  obvious  that  finding  c  and  using  it  in  the  formula 
is  more  correct  than  applying  a  general  reducing  factor  such  as 
found  in  the  case  of  Douglas  fir  above. 

To  further  illustrate  the  workings  of  c  the  average  value  of 
c  has  been  found  by  and  applied  to  the  white  pine  yields  as  given 
in  table  6,  Bulletin  13,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture,  new  series, 
for  site  quaHty  II,  i.e.,  medium  site  quality.  The  values  by 
formula,  with  and  without  use  of  c  and  by  summation  of  yield 
table  are  also  given. 

AVERAGE  VALUE  OF  CONSTANT  c  IN  WHITE  PINE,  SITE  QUALITY  II 
Based  on  Table  6,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.  BuU.  13,  N.  S. 


Rotation  (Years). 


40. 

50- 
60. 
70. 
80. 
90. 
100. 

IIO. 

120. 

130. 
140. 


Average. 


227 
280 
330 
368 

399 

426 

449 
465 
484 
506 
549 


nv  —n{a  -\-b 


Difference 

betw.    Last 

Two 

Columns. 


Feet,  Board  Measure,  per  Acre. 


,750 
,300 
,450 
,050 
,000 
450 
,500 
,600 
050 
750 
050 


5,337-5 
10,280 

15,525 
20,764 
25,588 
30,239 
34,610 
38,745 
42,654 
46,280 
51,604 


5,334-5 
10,248 

15,477 
20,644 
25,536 
30,203 
34,573 
38,771 
42,650 
46,299 
51,660 


3 
32 
48 

[20 
52 
36 

37 
26 
4 
19 
56 

39-4 


Note. — Values  over  one  hundred  years  from  prolonged  curves. 

The  value  of  Flury's  constant  in  finding  the  normal  growing 
stock  is  evident  since,  as  Flury  says,*    "  the  normal  growing 

*  Grosse  und  Aufbau  des  Normalvorrates  im   Hochwalde,   Mitteilungen  der 
Schweiz.    Centralanstalt  fiir  das  forstliche  Versuchsvvesen,  XI,  i ,  1914,  pp.  97-148. 


12  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

stock  is  the  best,  most  pregnant,  numerical  expression  of  sus- 
tained yield  management.  To  attempt  an  approach  to  normal 
stock  conditions  in  some  way,  must  be  the  aim  of  the  manager 
for  sustained  yield." 

Munger  *  has  devised  a  formula  for  determining  normal 
growing  stock  in  selection  forests.  Munger  conceives  of  the  nor- 
mal growing  stock  as  consisting  of  the  reserve  left  after  cutting 
multipHed  by  the  area,  plus  one-half  the  growth  which  take  place 
on  the  entire  forest  for  the  entire  cutting  cycle.  Expressed  as 
a  formula: 

nv= h  reserve  for  the  entire  forest, 

2 

where  i  =  the  current  annual  increment  on  the  entire  forest  and 
cc  =  the  cutting  cycle  (period  between  cuts). 

Example:  If  for  50  acres  ^  =  5000  board  feet,  cc  =  5o  years, 
that  is,  I  of  the  200-year  rotation,  and  reserve  =  200,000  board 
feet,  then 


tXcc  . 

nv  = -f  reserve 

2 


5000X50  , 

= ^  +  200,000 

2 

2t;0,000   , 

=-^2_J —  +  200,000 

2 

=  325,000  board  feet  for  the  entire  50  acres 
=  6500  board  feet  per  average  acre. 

Using  the  formula  wz;=— and  the  same  premises  wz^  would 
2 

figure  out  as  10,000  board  feet  per  acre. 

*  Proceedings  Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  X,  No.  i,  pp.  18-21.     The 

325,000 
example  which  Munger  gives  on  p.  20,  is  for  50  acres  since =  6500. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  13 

Hunger's  formula  is  undoubtedly  well  adapted  for  selec- 
tion forest. 

Fischer  *  has  suggested  the  following  modification  of  the 
formula  for  normal  growing  stock  when  applied  to  reproduction 
cuttings : 


wi'=  (initial  gr.  stock+final  gr.  stock)  X—^ — — 

2 


X.5. 


The  last  figure  varying  according  to  the  crown  density. 

For  example:  A  pine  forest  which  contains,  on  one  acre, 
14,600  board  feet  at  rotation  age  (i6o  years)  is  cut  by  shelter- 
wood  method  so  that  66  per  cent  of  the  volume  is  removed 
during  a  twenty-year  period  of  reproduction,  whereby  the  density 
is  reduced  to  .5.     Substituting: 

•  wz;  =  (14,600-1-4818)  X  —  X. 5 
2 

=  i9,4i8XioX.5 

=  i94,i8oX.5 

,      20 
=  97,090  for  • —  years 
2 

=  9709  board  feet  for  any  one  year,  per  acre. 
By  formula: 

.    ^14,600 
.     i6oX^*^^- — • 
n                 160  ,        ,  . 

nv  =  —  = =  7300  board  feet  per  acre. 

Strzeleckis    proposed  f    to    figure    nv  =  -(V--\--Vr]   where 

2\       2       2        / 

I'- =  volume  at  I  rotation  age  and  TV  =  volume  at  rotation  age. 

*  Allgemeine  Forst-  unci  Jagd-Zeitung,  ilarch,  1914,  pp.  100-102,  briefed 
For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XII,  No.  2,  pp.  279-280. 

t  .\llgemeine  Forst-  und  Jagd-Zeitung,  1S84,  p.  88,  p.  316. 


14  THE   THEORY   AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

Using  the  data  in  McCarthy's  yield  table  for  white  pine, 
and  a  rotation  of  140  years, 


nv=—^l  23,780+  )  =3,044,657  board  feet, 

but  this  is  for  140  acres, 

for  the  average  acre  =  ^'  ^    =21,748  board  feet 

140 

per  acre,  which  compares  well  with  iiv  by  yield  tables,   i.e., 
21,407  board  feet  per  acre. 


Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes 

All  the  trees  in  a  stand  or  forest  whose  age  falls  within  stated 
limits  are  spoken  of  as  being  in  the  same  age  class.  Age  classes 
are  usually  divided  in  twenty-year  periods,  but  in  old  stands 
may  be  of  wider  range.  Age  classes  are  stated  in  extent  of 
area  or  in  percentage  of  the  whole  stand;  in  selection  forest 
in  terms  of  number  of  trees.  A  stand  where  the  ages  of  the 
majority  of  the  trees  fall  between  twenty-one  and  forty  years, 
would,  for  twenty-year  age  classes,  be  referred  to  as  being  in 
"  Age  Class  II." 

In  the  selection  forest,  diameter  classes  take  the  place  of 
age  classes.  A  diameter  class  is  a  grouping  of  the  trees  of  a 
stand  on  the  basis  of  diameter,  the  intervals  varying  usually  from 
I  to  4  inches,  fractions  being  rounded  off  to  the  nearest  full 
inch  of  the  limit.  For  example,  with  a  3-inch  Umit  all  trees 
from  22.6  to  25.5  inches  in  diameter  would  be  assigned  to  the 
24 -inch  class.  The  diameter  classes  may  be  stated  by  numbers 
of  trees  in  each  class  on  the  unit  of  area  or  by  the  percentage  of 
the  total  contents  of  the  stand  represented  in  each,  or  by  area 
occupied  or  in  any  other  way. 

Distribution  of  age  classes  refers  to  either  the  local  dis- 
tribution of  age  classes  (Verteilung  der  Altersklassen)  or  the 
percentic  or  absolute  representation  of  the  different  age  classes 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE  OF   WORKING   PLANS 


15 


in  area  or  amount,  or  (in  selection  forest)  in  number  of  trees 
(Altersklassenverhaltniss) . 

Similarly,  distribution  of  diameter  classes  in  its  strict  sense 
means  the  location  and  area  of  each  stand  of  a  given  diameter 
class  in  the  forest.  In  a  general  sense  it  means  the  per  cent 
of  area  occupied  by  each  diameter  class  in  the  forest. 

Diagram  C 


../ 

/-..: 

Diagram  showing  the  Ijformal  S 
Gradation  of  th4  Age  Classes  with 
of  the  s;oungeBt  Age  Class. 

ep-like 
detail 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

Prev 

liUng 

/ 

/ 

Wl 

od 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

r — 

/ 

/ 

/ 

/ 

•I  \  li_s  10  20  30  -10 


70  SO  'JO  100 


A  table  or  diagram  showing  the  proportion  or  amount  of 
each  age  class  in  the  forest  is  called  an  age  class  record.  This 
may  be  expressed  in  percentages  or  in  actual  area.  Similarly, 
there  may  be  a  diameter  class  record. 

The  correct  distribution  of  the  age  classes  is  theoretically 
like  a  series  of  equal  sized  steps,  growing  higher  along  the 


16  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

prevailing  storm  direction.  However,  this  theoretical  ideal  is 
never  achieved;  it  suffices  that  each  age  class  has  an  approxi- 
mately equal  representation  on  the  area  which  is  to  have  a 
sustained  yield;  in  fact,  without  a  fairly  even  distribution  of 
the  age  classes  sustained  yield  on  a  given  area  is  impossible. 

Twenty  years  is  commonly  taken  as  one  age  class,  though 
sometimes  ten  and  sometimes  thirty-six  years  is  used.  In  any 
case  the  rotation  must  be  a  simple  multiple  of  the  age  class. 
It  is  customary  to  number  the  age  classes  from  I  up,  beginning 
with  the  youngest.*  Thus  for  an  eighty-year  rotation  there  are 
four  age  classes  of  twenty  years  each;  a  fifth  age  class  would 
contain  all  stands  older  than  r  (the  rotation). 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  get  some  conception  of 
how  the  age  classes  are  distributed. 

In  even-aged  stands  or  stands  even-aged  in  groups,  the  age 
may  be  determined  by  finding  the  average  tree  (any  of  the 
standard  methods)  and  then  getting  the  age  from  stump 
analysis  or  boring  to  the  center  at  breast  high  with  an  incre- 
ment borer,  or  from  diameter-age  tables  (if  available  and 
applicable!) . 

Where  stands  are  fairly  even-aged,  but  conditions  are  too 
extensive  to  permit  the  exact  assignment  to  definite  age  classes, 
the  general  classification  into 

0  overmature  (more  than  rotation  age) ; 

M  mature  (of  rotation  age  down  to  |  thereof) ; 

Y  young  (from  lowest  age  to  \  rotation) 

will  serve  the  purpose. 

The  selection  forest,  of  course,  has  all  age  classes  inextricably 
intermingled.  But  where  the  age  differences  are  not  to  exceed 
"I  or  ^  of  the  rotation,  the  stand  can  be  classified  according  to 
its  average  age,  or,  more  exactly,  according  to  the  proportion 
of  space  each  age  occupies.  For  example:  320  acres  of  spruce 
might  contain  160  acres  of  trees  seventy  years  old,  100  of  trees 

*  In  Prussia  this  is  reversed,  I.  is  the  oldest  age  class. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  17 

sixty  years  old,  and  60  acres  of  trees  only  forty  years  old.     The 
average  age  here  would  be  61  years;    for: 

160X70+100X60+60X40     , 

'- — ■ ^=61  years. 

320 

Where,  in  uneven-aged  forest,  the  age  classes  are  so  inter- 
mingled that  they  cannot  be  distinguished  by  area  but  only 
by  volume   (from  the  diameter-classes  in  the  estimates),   the 

average  age  =  the  . ;    e.g.,   if  the    uneven-aged    forest 

mcrement 

has  three  main  age  classes: 

100  year  class  with  2000  feet  board  measure 
60  1 200 

50  800 

xi        ^1  111      2000+1200+800 

then  the  average  age  would  be —  =  71.4  years. 

2000     1200    800 

100       60       50 

Prof.  Chapman  of  Yale  has  suggested  a  method  of  dividing 
the  total  volumes  by  the  total  number  of  trees,  then  finding 
the  d.b.h.  and  height  which,  in  the  volume  table,  corresponds 
to  this  average  volume  and  determining  the  average  age  from 
stump  analysis,  increment  boring,  or  growth  table.  This 
method  appHes  only  to  the  merchantable  classes. 

The  normal  selection  forest  would  show  the  following  dis- 
tribution of  ages  by  area: 

E.g.,  900  acres 'of  selection  forest  with  a  rotation  of  150  years 

and  a  cutting  cycle  of  30  years  would  normally  contain  -^  =  5 
age  classes  as  follows: 

Trees       ■  ^^^^'^^ 


I-  30  years 

old 

150 

-=i8o  acres 

31-  60 

=  180 

61-  90 

=  180 

91-120 

=  180 

121-150 

=  180 

Total, 

900  acres 

18  THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

A  convenient  way  to  express  the  age  limits  and  average  age 

in  an  uneven-aged  stand  is  by  the  expression  ^^ where,  in 

the  example  above,  the  age  varies  from  50  to  100  years  and  the 
average  has  been  determined  as  71  years  (strictly  71.4  years). 
Where  the  average  age  has  not  been  arithmetically  determined 
the  approximate  age  figures  will,  at  least,  serve  as  a  valuable 

guide.     Or  even  the  letters  O,  Y,  M  may  be  used,  e.g., 

would  be  a  stand  Mature  to  Overmature  with  the  average 
Overmature,  i.e.,  in  excess  of  the  rotation  age. 

Nor  should  it  be  forgotten  that  certain  species,  such  as  fir 
and  spruce,  often  withstand  decades  of  suppression  during  which 
their  growth  is  almost  nil.  In  determining  their  age  this  "  core 
of  suppression  "  should,  therefore,  be  disregarded. 

Areas  that  are  being  regenerated  by  shelterwood  methods 
fall  into  two  age  classes,  divided  according  to  what  remained 
of  the  original  stand.  For  example,  a  shelterwood  cutting 
in  a  ninety-year  old  stand  covering  200  acres  of  which  only 
40  per  cent  of  the  stand  remained  uncut  would  be  apportioned: 
80  acres  to  the  higher-age  class  and  120  acres  to  the  lowest  or 
to  the  "  blanks  "  if  no  reproduction  was  on  the  ground.  Where 
less  than  20  per  cent  of  the  original  stand  remains  on  a  cutting 
area  or  burn  and  the  density  of  stocking  is  less  than  .3  and  there 
is  no  reproduction  the  area,  is  temporarily  at  least,  classed 
with  the  "  blanks." 

The  age  classes  are  differentiated  by  species  only  if  there  is 
a  marked  difference  in  their  value. 

There  are  two  graphic  ways  of  comparing  the  actual  with 
the  normal  distribution  of  the  age  classes.  One  is  by  plotting 
the  normal  and  the  actual  area  of  each  age  class  on  cross- 
section  paper,  using  the  ordinates  for  age  and  the  abscissas  for 
area.  The  normal  distribution  will,  of  course,  be  a  straight 
line;  the  actual  a  zigza-g,  now  rising  above,  now  falling  below 
the  horizontal  line  of  normality. 

The    other    method    is    that    of    rectangular    blocks,    the 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


19 


normal  age  classes  being  equal-sized  and  placed  next  to  the 
unequal  blocks  showing  the  actual  size  of  the  various  age 
classes. 

It  is  always  of  advantage  to  compare  the  real  and  the  normal 
age-class  distribution;    for  it  is  a  criterion  of  a  sustained  yield 

Diagram  D 


~~ 

II          III 

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Diagram  sliowing  tl 

eivfoi 

mala 

nd 

Actual  Distribution 

Of 

Ag 

iC 

asses 

in 

af 

Iv 

f° 

Fo 

est. 

N 

orma 

D 

sti|'ibuUc 

n 

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25,000 

25, 

000 

25,000 

25, 

000 

0- 

20 

21 

40 

41 

60 

61 

80 

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ss 

AC 

rea 

ge 

1 

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26,2<0 

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22,334 

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_ 

_ 

— 

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10  ,000 

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26, 

290 

)39 

-'9. 

i37 

22, 

834 

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20 

21 

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41 

■60 

61 

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Acres 
30,000 

- 

^ 

— 

-«. 

^ 

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istfib 

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ge 

in  Years 

and,  in  conjunction  with  the  increment,  determines  the  degree 
of  approach  toward  a  normal  forest. 

Note. — For  a  consideration  of  the  value  of  the  growing  stock  of  a  normal 
forest,  see  Roth:  "  Forest  Valuation,"  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1916,  pp.  65-70.  See 
also,  by  the  same  author,  "  Normal  Forest  and  Actual  Forest,  Normal  Growing 
Stock  and  Actual  Growing  Stock,  Normal  Stand  and  Actual  Stand,"  Forestry- 
Quarterly,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  2,  pp.  154-162. 


20  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 

SECTION  TWO 

FOREST  SURVEY 

By  forest  survey  is  understood  the  gathering  and  tabula- 
tion of  all  data  in  regard  to  forest  lands,  including  plane  and 
topographic  surveying,  mapping,  timber  estimates,  forest 
descriptions,  grazing  data  and  land  classification,  type  and  site 
determination,  involving  all  the  work  of  every  kind  (including 
the  construction  of  volume,  growth  and  yield  tables)  neces- 
sary for  the  making  of  the  working  plan.* 

Here  again  forest  organization  touches  upon  the  domain 
of  forest  mensuration  and,  in  part,  of  engineering.  Hence  only 
the  salient  points  affecting  the  working  plan  will  be  treated. 

Preliminary  Work 

Before  the  field  work  is  begun,  all  available  data  should  be 
gathered  from  the  records,  along  the  following  lines: 

1.  Area  and  boundaries  of  forest. 

2.  Best  existing  estimates  of  timber. 

3.  Approximate  distribution  of  species. 

4.  Salient  topographic  features. 

5.  Past  cuttings  and  their  results;  stumpage  prices. 

6.  Classes  of  material  utilized;  prices  obtained;  market  con- 

ditions. 

7.  Previous  working  plan  or  previous  silvical  studies;    vol- 

ume, growth,  or  yield  tables. 

8.  Best  maps  available. 

Armed  with  these  data,  the  forest  organizer  should  then 
make  a  preliminary  trip  over  the  forest  so  as  to  gain  a  general 
familiarity  therewith  and  the  better  to  formulate  his  plan  of 

*  Forest  surveys  may  be  partial  or  complete,  more  or  less  intensive  or  exten- 
sive. A  preliminary,  extensive  forest  survey  is  often  called  a  reconnaissance. 
This  term  may  be  applied  to  include  one  or  more  of  the  items  constituting  a  com- 
plete forest  survey.  The  term  "  intensive  reconnaissance  "  is  essentially  con- 
tradictory in  its  component  parts. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  21 

campaign.     Wherever  possible,  he  should  be  accompanied  by 
the  owner,  the  administrator,  or  both. 

A  conference  should  always  be  had  between  the  owner  or 
administrator,  or  both,  and  the  forest  organizer.  The  wishes 
and  objects  of  the  owner  are  basic  in  outlining  a  plan  of  silvi- 
cultural  management  and  determine  what  data  are  requisite  and 
what  degree  of  detail  is  necessary  in  securing  these  data.  The 
permissible  cost  of  field  work  should  also  be  decided.  It  is  well 
if  the  results  of  this  conference  are  put  in  writing  and  the  docu- 
ment signed  by  each  of  the  participants. 

Survey  of  Area 

A  good  map  is  an  essential  part  of  every  working  plan. 
The  map  need  not  be  elaborate,  but  it  must  be  accurate. 

Where  the  land  involved  has  not  been  surveyed,  this  must 
form  a  part  of  the  field  work,  though  it  can  often  be  done  in 
conjunction  with  the  estimating.  In  every  case,  it  involves 
at  least  the  retracement  of  the  principal  land  lines  and  their 
fixation  on  the  ground  and  on  the  map.  Especial  attention 
must  be  given  to  the  boundary  lines. 

It  is  very  serviceable  to  post  boundary  and  interior  corners 
with  fire  warnings,  or  similar  placards,  in  pathless  forests.  These 
are  most  helpful  in  indicating  the  position  of  corners,  especially 
if  they  are  stamped  with  rubber  stencils  and  indelible  ink  to 
show  what  corner  it  is.  Thus,  where  the  land  is  sectionized,  the 
section  corner  would  be  posted  and  perhaps  also  where  an  im- 
portant section  or  township  line  crosses  a  much-traveled  road 
or  trail.  The  object  is  to  make  the  results  of  field  surveys  or 
retracement  of  old  survey  lines  available  not  only  on  the  map 
but  on  the  ground. 

The  extent  to  which  topography  should  be  shown  depends 
on  the  uses  of  the  map.  Where  a  detailed  plan  of  logging  is  to 
be  included,  the  topography  must  be  shown  in  detail.  For 
purposes  of  ordinary  forest  organization  it  suffices  to  show  all 
drainage,  all  roads  and  trails,  all  houses,  barns,  and  other  "  cul- 
ture,"  and   the   topography  in   contours  of   loo-foot  interval 


22  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

sketched  in  from  aneroid  barometer  traverses.*  In  level  country- 
contours  serve  no  useful  purpose.  In  the  matter  of  topography 
the  object  is  to  get  a  good  working  medium  for  orientation  and 
for  the  subsequent  division  of  the  area. 

The  scale  of  the  map  must  depend  on  the  size  of  the  area, 
the  wealth  of  detail,  and  the  intensity  of  the  proposed  manage- 
ment. Ordinarily  a  scale  of  i  or  2  inches  to  the  mile  for  the 
general  map  is  quite  sufficient.  Where  the  forest  is  very  large 
it  is  well  to  have  a  small  scale  location  map,  and  then  larger 
scale  maps  showing  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  in  greater 
detail. 

No  survey  of  the  area — and  no  forest  map — is  complete 
which  does  not  include  a  delineation  of  the  forest  types.  This 
is  usually  done  in  conjunction  with  the  estimating,  but  its 
importance  must  be  emphasized  here.  Simplicity  in  type 
distinctions  is  essential  for  clearness.  Only  those  type  differ- 
ences should  be  recognized  which  are  sufficiently  striking  to 
be  recognized  instantly  by  every  trained  eye.  Ordinarily,  per- 
manent types  alone  should  be  regarded,  but  often  transitory 
types — e.g.,  aspen  on  old  burns — must  be  recognized,  since  they 
demand  a  different  treatment.  Minor  differences  should  never, 
for  the  purposes  of  a  working  plan,  be  made  the  basis  of  type 
distinction. 

The  mapping  of  all  cut-over  or  burned  areas,  of  swamps, 
barrens,  etc.,  is  a  part  of  every  forest  survey. 

Timber  Estimates 

Requisites. — Without  encroaching  on  the  subject  of  forest 
mensuration,  the  requisites  of  the  timber  estimates  for  purposes 
of  the  working  plan  are: 

1.  Amount  and  species  of  timber. 

2.  Class  of  timber  (saw  timber,  cordwood,  etc.). 

*  The  topographers  of  reconnaissance  parties  of  the  U.  S.  Forest  Service 
prefer  the  Abney  hand  level  to  the  barometer  for  any  work  except  the  making  of 
very  rough  maps.  See  "  The  Abney  Hand  Level  and  the  Chain  on  Intensive 
Forest  Surveys,"  C.  R.  Anderson,  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  3,  pp.  338-343. 


PLATE   II. 


A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Party,  Florida. 


[To  face  page  22] 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  23 

3.  Condition  of  timber  (soundness). 

4.  Approximate  age  of  timber. 

For  purposes  of  combining  the  survey  with  the  timber  esti- 
mate, the  strip  method  of  estimating  is  undoubtedly  the  best. 
From  a  definite  base  Hne — such  as  a  section  boundary  or,  if  in 
unsurveyed  or  very  rough  country,  a  base  line  previously  run 
out — the  strips  are  run  out  at  right  angles,  at  definite  inter- 
vals. 

Base  Lines. — The  section  hne  serves  as  an  excellent  base, 
especially  in  fairly  level  country.  Rough  topography  or  the 
lack  of  suitable  survey  Hues  as  a  base  make  it  necessary  to  es- 
tablish base  lines  in  advance  of  the  actual  estimating.  They 
should  be  located  in  valley  bottoms,  along  roads,  or  elsewhere 
so  that  they  can  be  easily  retraced;  at  the  same  time  they  give 
a  preliminary  topographic  control.  The  distances  must  of 
course  be  measured  accurately  either  by  chain  or  tape  or  by 
stadia.  The  use  of  stadia — involving  a  mountain  transit  or 
a  telescopic  alidade — is  advisable  only  in  fairly  open  country 
or  for  the  primary  base  lines.  The  chain  or  tape  is  much 
handier  in  timbered  country;  pacing  is  not  accurate  enough  for 
this  purpose. 

Beginning  at  some  known  point,  or  at  least  tied  thereto  by 
definite  triangulation,  the  base  line  system  is  developed  over  the 
whole  forest  hke  the  stem  and  branches  of  a  tree.  The  number 
of  base  Hnes  must  depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  work;  better 
fewer  and  accurate  than  many  and  shpshod. 

A  traverse  board  and  open-sight  alidade  are  excellent  for 
base-line  work  unless  the  timber  is  too  dense;  then  chaining  alone 
is  possible,  and  the  notes  must  be  plotted  not  only  upon  return 
to  camp,  but  immediately,  in  the  rough,  so  as  to  determine 
where  the  equidistant  strip  stations  are  to  be  established. 
For  the  base  line  traverse  will  necessarily  be  a  zigzag  and  the 
strip  stations  must  be  exactly  equidistant.  They  are  usually 
marked  with  a  stake  and  a  pile  of  stones  or  a  blaze,  scribed  or 
blue-penciled  with  the  number  and  the  elevation  of  the  station. 
For  purposes  of  identification  it  is  well  to  place  the  station  close 


N.  C.  State  Cohege 


24  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

to  some  road,  trail,  stream,  or  other  topographic  feature.  The 
elevation  is  determined  by  aneroid  barometer  readings  carried 
from  some  point  of  known  elevation.  Where  transit  or  telescopic 
alidade  or  a  clinometer  is  used  it  can  also  be  determined  by  the 
vertical  angles.  The  crossings  of  all  roads  and  trails,  of  creeks, 
etc.,  are  noted,  either  directly  plotted  on  the  traverse  board 
or  else  entered  in  the  note-book;  the  elevation  at  these  crossings 
is  also  noted. 

If  the  forest  is  so  large  that  the  estimating  will  require  several 
seasons,  only  so  much  of  the  base-hne  work  need  be  completed 
in  advance  as  will  be  used  in  that  season.  However,  base-line 
work  can  often  be  done  to  advantage  several  months  before  the 
detailed  estimates  are  begun. 

Wherever  possible,  the  forest  organizer  should  himself  be 
in  charge  of  the  base-line  work.  Three  men  constitute  the 
ordinary  base-line  crew;  two  will  suffice  at  a  pinch,  though  it  is 
better  to  have  two  to  chain  and  one  for  the  traverse  board  or 
to  enter  notes,  take  aneroid  readings,  etc. 

The  Strips. — The  estimate  strips  should  always  run  across 
the  topography;  only  in  that  way  will  average  conditions  be 
secured.  The  size  of  the  crew  depends  on  the  method  of  esti- 
mating employed.  The  ordinary  strip  survey  crew  consists 
of  two  caliper  men,  and  a  head  and  a  rear  chainman.  The 
former  runs  the  compass,  the  last  named  takes  notes  on  topog- 
raphy and  elevation  and  enters  the  diameters  breast  high  as 
called  out  by  the  caliper  men.  Each  strip  is  usually  one  chain 
wide. 

Where  the  strip  is  not  chained,  the  crew  can  be  reduced  to 
three,  or  even  two,  the  compassman  to  pace  and  keep  notes, 
two  (or  one)  to  cahper. 

Where  trained  men  are  used,  calipering  is  seldom  necessary; 
here  two  men — one  to  pace  and  keep  notes,  one  to  estimate 
diameters — suffice. 

In  open  timber  the  strips  can  be  widened  to  one  chain  on 
each  side  of  the  line. 

One  man  can  run  a  strip,  but  he  can  scarcely  manage  com- 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OP   WORKING  PLANS  25 

pass,  aneroid,  note-book,  and  estimate  all  at  the  same  time. 
Either  he  must  make  an  ocular  estimate  of  the  whole  stand  or 
else  confine  himself  to  quarter-acre  (or  similar  sized)  sample 
areas  at  definite  intervals.  Only  in  cases  of  need  is  this  sample- 
area  method  advised;  it  is  usually  better  economy  to  use  a 
two  or  more  man  crew.  The  work  goes  better,  and  is  more 
accurate,  the  men  check  each  other's  judgment  and,  finally, 
in  case  of  accident,  the  single  man  is  not  left  helpless. 

The  strips  must  gridiron  the  forest.  The  interval  between 
the  grids  depends  on  the  purpose  of  the  work.  For  a  reliable 
estimate  5  to  10  per  cent  of  the  area  should  be  covered.*  This 
means: 

For  5  per  cent  of  area:   chain- wide  strips  20  chains  apart. 

For  5  per  cent  of  area:  strips  two  chains  wide,  40  chains 
apart. 

For  5  per  cent  of  area:  j-acre  sample  areas,  2^  chains  apart 
on  strips  20  chains  apart. 

For  10  per  cent  of  area:   chain-wide  strips  10  chains  apart. 

For  10  per  cent  of  area:  strips  two  chains  wide  20  chains  apart. 

For  10  per  cent  of  area:  |-acre  sample  areas,  2^  chains  apart 
on  strips  10  chains  apart. 

A  very  practical  way  of  recording  the  estimates  is  by  2  or 
3  inch  diameter  classes,  beginning  with  the  smallest  merchant- 
able diameter,  supposing  this  to  be  11  inches,  as  follows: 

*  Margolin  in  an  article  on  "  Errors  in  Estimating  Timber,"  For.  Quart.,  Vol. 
XII,  No.  2,  pp.  167-176,  says: 

"  Assuming  that  the  method  of  estimating  is  correct  and  it  is  carefully  applied, 
a  5  per  cent  estimate  will  give  fairly  satisfactory  results  for  an  area  not  less  than 
about  1500  acres.  A  10  per  cent  estimate  may  give  fairly  satisfactory  results 
for  an  area  as  small  as  a  section  in  extent,  but  for  smaller  areas  than  that  even  a 
10  per  cent  cruise  is  not  very  reliable.  Where  more  detailed  estimates  are  desired 
more  intensive  cruises  are  essential.  The  practice  of  making  5  per  cent  or  even 
a  10  per  cent  cruise  and  then  gi\'ing  out  the  estimate  by  40-acre  units  is  inaccurate 
and  misleading  and  should  be  discontinued,  especially  so  since  such  a  detailed 
estimate  seldom  serves  a  useful  purpose. 

"  The  greater  accuracy  obtained  by  a  lo-per  cent  cruise  over  a  5  per  cent 
cruise  is  entirely  out  of  proportion  to  the  difference  in  the  costs,  and  it  appears  to 
be  good  business,  therefore,  to  make  the  more  intensive  cruise,  especially  where 
detailed  figures  are  desired." 


26 


THE   THEORY    AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


D.  B.  H. 

SPECIES 

inches 

Pine 

Spruce 

Fir 

Etc. 

12 

li; 

i8 

21 

24,  etc 

Poles 

Saplings 

Seedlings 

Seedlings  are  all  trees  under  5  feet  in  height;  these  are  usually 
counted  on  a  quarter-acre  circle  at  the  end  of  every  ten  chains 
or  so,  to  supplement  the  notes  on  reproduction.* 

Saplings  are  from  5  feet  in  height  to,  say,  6  inches  diameter 
breast  high. 

Poles  are  over,  say,  6  inches  diameter  breast  high  up  to  the 
minimum  merchantable  diameter.  Poles  and  saphngs  are 
usually  counted  and  tallied  just  like  the  larger  timber. 

While  the  strip  estimates,  in  combination  with  volume 
tables,  usually  give  more  accurate  results  than  an  ocular  esti- 
mate, the  greater  expense  of  the  former  and  the  longer  time 
required  to  cover  a  given  area  often  decide  in  favor  of  the  latter, 
especially  where  a  rough  estimate  suffices  and  data  on  diameter 
classes  are  not  requisite. 

Various  methods  of  ocular  estimating  have  been  devised; 
for  purposes  of  forest  organization  the  method  of  reconnaissance 


*  The  Society  of  American  Foresters  recognizes  the  following  tree  classes: 

Seedling:  a  tree,  grown  from  seed,  not  yet  3  feet  high. 

Shoot:  a  sprout,  not  yet  3  feet  high. 

Small  sapling:  a  tree  from  3  to  10  feet  high. 

Large  sapling:   a  tree  10  feet  or  over  in  height  and  less  than  4  inches  d.b.h. 

Small  pole:  a  tree  from  4  to  8  inches  d.b.h. 

Large  pole:  a  tree  from  8  to  12  inches  d.b.h. 

Standard:  a  tree  from  i  to  2  feet  d.b.h. 

Veteran:  a  tree  over  2  feet  d.b.h. 


THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  27 

estimating  practised  by  the  Federal  Forest  Service  since  1907 
is  probably  the  best.* 

Topographic  Notes. — Besides  the  timber  estimating,  it  is 
a  valuable  feature  of  all  strip  surveys  that  the  opportunity  is 
offered  to  get  excellent  data  on  topographic  features. 

The  estimator  or  tallyman  carries  an  aneroid  barometer 
and  notes  the  elevation  at  each  stream,  divide,  or  similar  feature; 
also  at  each  corner  to  which  he  ties.  Streams,  ridges,  roads, 
trails,  etc.,  are  sketched  by  him  in  a  suitable  note-book  so  as 
to  show  the  exact  point  at  which  these  features  were  crossed 
and  their  trend  for  a  short  distance  to  either  side  of  the  survey 
line.  The  same  method  applies  to  burned  and  cut-over  areas. 
The  boundaries  of  these  and  of  the  forest  types  should  be  noted 
where  they  are  crossed  and  their  trend  for  a  short  distance  to 
either  side  of  the  survey  line.  These  data  should  be  sketched 
in  on  blanks  or  note-books  provided  for  the  purpose. 

Time  of  jSurvey  and  Estimate. — The  "  field  season  " — i.e., 
that  season  when  field  work  can  be  accomplished  with  the 
minimum  of  climatic  difficulties — is  usually  the  best  for  the  work 
of  estimating  and  mapping.  In  mountainous  countries  and  in 
northern  latitudes,  this  means  the  summer  months;  in  southern 
latitudes  winter  is  often  preferable  because  of  the  excessive 
summer  heat.  Even  in  mountain  regions  the  winter  season  may 
sometimes  be  chosen  because  the  forest  personnel  is  usually  less 
heavily  burdened  with  work  in  winter  than  in  summer.  That 
winter  work  is  entirely  feasible,  if  snowshoes  or  skis  are  used, 
is  demonstrated  by  the  winter  reconnaissance  in  certain  mountain 
forests  of  California. f  One  advantage  of  winter  work  is  the 
ease  with  which  the  compassman's  tracks  can  be  followed  by 


*  For  detailed  description  see  "  The  New  Reconnaissance,"  Proceedings 
Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  IV,  No.  i.  Reprinted  Yale  Publishing 
Association,  1909.  See  also,  for  practical  workings,  cost,  etc.,  "  The  Progress  of 
Reconnaissance,"  F.  Q.,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  4,  pp.  415  to  418. 

t  See  "  Winter  Reconnaissance  in  Californian  Mountains,"  R.  F.  Hammatt, 
F.  Q.,  Vol.  IX,  No.  4,  pp.  557-562.  Also  "  Winter  Reconnaissance  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,"  G.  Z.  Mason,  F.  Q.,  Vol.  XI,  No.  4,  PP-  516-518. 


28  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

the  cruisers  and  used  by  them  as  a  check  on  the  width  of  the 
estimating  strips. 

Use  of  Yield  Tables. — ^The  estimating  of  timber  by  means 
of  yield  tables  unfortunately  finds  Httle  or  no  apphcation  in 
America  because  of  the  lack  of  suitable  tables.  Yield  tables 
are  constructed  for  even-aged  fully  stocked  stands  of  a  single 
species  for  various  site  qualities.  The  age  is  usually  given  in 
five-  or  ten-year  intervals.  European  yield  tables  are  separated 
for  final  and  intermediate  yield  (thinnings)  and  total.  Normal 
yield  tables  preponderate,  but  local  (empirical)  yield  tables  are 
used  as  makeshifts.  The  methods  of  making  yield  tables  is  the 
province  of  forest  mensuration,  but  for  purposes  of  forest  organ- 
ization the  data  should  comprise :  Age,  number  of  trees  per  acre, 
basal  area,  d.b.h.  of  average  tree,  height  of  average  tree,  yield  per 
acre,  current  and  mean  annual  increment,  for  each  site  quality. 

The  use  of  yield  tables  requires  the  determination  in  the 
field  of  the  following  data  (presupposing  nearly  even-aged 
stands):  Age,  site  quality,*  density  of  stocking. f  The  corre- 
sponding value  for  the  age  and  site  quality  is  read  directly  from 
the  yield  table  and  this  multiplied  by  the  factor  of  density 
(i.o  to  o.o).  Where  there  are  several  species  in  the  stand, 
the  percentage  of  each  is  determined  and  the  corresponding 
value  in  the  various  yield  tables  multiplied  thereby;  these 
values  are  then  added  and  their  sum  multipHed  by  the  factor 
of  density  (i.o  to  o.o). 

Cost. — The  cost  of  estimating  (field  work  only)  averages 
between  the  following  figures: 

Ocular  estimates i    to    2  cents  per  acre 

2|-per  cent  strip  estimates 2|  to    5 

5-per  cent  strip  estimates 5    to  10 

lo-per  cent  strip  estimates 10    to  15 

*  Site  quality  is  most  accurately  gauged  by  the  height  of  the  trees.  See 
Roth:   "  Concerning  Site,"  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  i,  pp.  3-13. 

t  The  density  or  degree  of  stocking  is  most  accurately  gauged  by  considering 
it  as  =  area  of  cross-section  of  trees  of  the  stand  divided  by  normal  area  of  cross- 
section  (basal  area).  See  Roth:  "  Forest  Regulation,"  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1914, 
pp. 54-56. 


PLATE  III. 


A  Reconnaissance  Survey  Camp,  Florida. 


[To  face  page ''Hi 


the  theory  and  practice  of  working  plans         29 

Forest  Description 

It  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  the  working  plan  that 
the  silvical  data  secured  in  gridironing  a  forest  be  made  a  matter 
of  record.  In  order  that  the  observer  may  put  down  his  observa- 
tions while  they  are  fresh  in  his  mind  it  is  well  to  provide  a 
note-book  or  blanks  with  appropriate  headings,  such  as  those 
in  the  following  outline : 

Outline  for  Forest  Description 

1.  Locality.    Name    of    tract    or    owner,    township,    county, 

state.     (Govt.  Survey  give  Sec,  T.,  R.,  and  M.) 

2.  Situation  and  altitude.     Reference  to  mountain,  ridge,  road, 

stream,  camp,  trail,  etc.     Elevation  above  sea  level. 

3.  Boundaries  and  area.     Adjoining  property. 

4.  General  topography. 

a.  General  character — level  plain  to  steep  mountain. 

h.  Percentage  of  level  land,  gentle  slopes,  steep  slopes,  etc. 

c.  Height  of  the  hills  above  the  neighboring  streams. 

d.  Drainage. 

5.  Slope  and  aspect  (aspect  =  exposure). 
a.  *^lope. 

Level o  to      5%  o      to    3° 

Gentle 5  to    15  3      to    8.5 

Medium 15  to    30  8.5  to  16.5 

Steep 30  to    50  16 . 5  to  26 . 5 

Very  steep 50  to  100  26.5  to  45 

Precipitous over    100  over       45 

h.  Aspect,  eight  principal  points  of  the  compass. 

6.  Underlying  rock,  outcroppings;    the  quantity  and  size  of 

boulders. 

7.  Soil. 

a.  Physical  composition:  gravel,  sand,  loam,  clay  and 
intermediate  forms;  also  the  amount  of  organic  matter, 
and  possibly  of  lime. 


30  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

b.  Depth:    Very  shallow less  than  6  inches 

Shallow 6  to  12  inches 

Moderate 12  to  24 

Deep 24  to  36 

Very  deep over  36 

c.  Color  and  consistency  (light,  binding,  stiff,  etc.) 

d.  Soil  moisture: 

Wet:  when  water  drips  from  a  piece  held  in  the  hand 
without  pressing. 

Moist:  when  water  drips  from  a  piece  pressed  in  the 
hand. 

Fresh:  when  no  water  drips  from  a  piece  pressed  in  the 
hand,  though  it  is  unmistakably  present. 

Dry:  when  there  is  Uttle  or  no  trace  of  water. 

Very  dry:  when  the  soil  is  parched.  Such  soils  are 
usually  caked  and  very  hard,  sand- being  an  excep- 
tion. 

e.  Agricultural  value. 

8.  Forest  floor  (the  deposit  of  vegetable  matter  on  the  ground 

in  a  forest). 

a.  Litter  (the  upper,  only  slightly  decomposed  portion  of  the 

forest  floor).     Deep,  moderate,  scant,  etc. 

b.  Humus    (the   portion   in   which   decomposition   is   well 

advanced).     Give  the  depth  in  inches. 

9.  Ground  cover  (ah  small  plants  growing  in  a  forest,  except 

young  trees;  such  as  ferns,  mosses,  grasses  and  weeds). 
Specify  as  herbaceous,  woody,  grass,  ferns,  moss,  etc., 
and  state  amount. 

10.  Underbrush  (all  large  woody  plants,  such  as  laurel,  striped 

maple,  witch-hazel  and  devil's  club,  which  grow  in  a 
forest  but  do  not  make  trees). 

Note. — Undergrowth  includes  ground  cover,  underbrush,  seedlings,  shoots, 
and  small  saplings. 

11.  Reproduction  (trees  less  than   10  feet  high,  from  sprouts 

or  from  self-sown  seeds).     State  whether  the  repro- 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  31 

duction  is  from  seed  or  sprouts;  for  each  of  the  prin- 
c-ipal  species  give  the  approximate  age,  size,  amount, 
condition  and  occurrence  of  the  reproduction  (by 
occurrence  is  meant  in  groups  or  singly,  on  raised 
ground  or  in  depressions,  on  decaying  logs,  etc.); 
mention  which  species  are  most  productive. 
Stand  (all  growing  trees  in  a  forest  or  in  part  of  a  forest). 

a.  Forest  t>^es,  the  topographic  location  of  each,  and  the 

approximate  proportion  of  the  total  area  occupied 
by  each.  (A  forest  type  is  a  forest  or  a  part  of  a 
forest  possessing  distinctive  characteristics  of  composi- 
tion or  habit  of  growth.) 

b.  Composition:   leading  species,  associated  species,  nature 

of  mixture  (singly  or  in  groups);  give  approximate 
percentages  of  the  leading  species. 

c.  Origin:  seedHng,  sprouts. 

d.  Density  of  crown  cover  (density  of  the  crowns  of  the  trees 

in  a  forest) ;  it  is  usually  measured  by  the  extent  to 
which  the  ground  is  shaded;   express  in  decimals. 

e.  Age:    calculated  from  stumps  or  by  judgment;    approx- 

imate   range   of   average   ages,    or   age   classes.     Age 

class  I,  one  to  twenty  years;  II,  twenty-one  to  forty 

years,  etc. 
/.   Diameter  and  height  development:   (I)  general  range  of 

the  breast-high  diameters  and  of  the  heights  of  the 

larger  trees,  e.g.,  8  to  14  inches,   70  to  90  feet.     (II) 

Are  the  various  tree  or  size  classes  well  represented? 

The  tree  classes  are: 
Seedhng — a  tree  grown  from  seed  not  yet  3  feet  high. 
Shoot — a  tree  not  yet  3  feet  high  grown  from  a  sprout 

(sprout  =  a  tree  which  has  grown  from  a  stump  or 

root) . 
Small  sapling — tree  from  3  to  10  feet  high. 
Large  sapUng — a  tree  10  feet  or  over  in  height  and  less 

than  4  inches  d.b.h. 
Small  pole — a  tree  from  4  to  8  inches  d.b.h. 


32  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

Large  pole — a  tree  from  8  to  12  inches  d.b.h. 
Standard — a  tree  from  i  to  2  feet  d.b.h. 
Veteran — a  tree  over  2  feet  d.b.h. 
g.  Form   of   trees:    long  or  short   boles;    clear  or  limby; 
straight  or  crooked.     If  saw  timber,   the  number  of 
sawlogs    (16   feet   long)   per   tree   and    per    M.   feet, 
board  measure. 
h.  Condition:   health,  and  apparent  vigor  of  growth. 

13.  History  of  the  stand:    treatment  by  man;   damage  by  fire, 

grazing,  insects,  diseases  and  atmospheric  agents. 

14.  Merchantable    condition    of    the    trees.     Reductions    for 

defect;  per  cent  of  probable  output  of  different  grades 
of  lumber. 

15.  Site   class    (forest-producing  power   of   the  locahty).     Use 

five  grades,  I,  II,  III,  IV,  V.  I  is  best  site.  Should 
express  the  capabihty  of  the  tract  rather  than  the  pres- 
ent production. 

Note. — Many  American  authors  use  only  three  grades,  I,  II,  and  III,  I  being 
the  best  site  and  III  the  poorest  site. 

These  subjects  need  not  be  treated  exhaustively;  the  forest 
description  must,  above  all,  be  practical  and  brief. 

The  unit  of  area  in  forest  description  depends,  of  course, 
on  the  degree  of  intensity  possible  in  the  working  plan.  The 
ideal  unit  of  description  is  the  stand.  The  stand  is  that  portion 
of  the  forest  which  is  so  essentially  different  in  forest  type,  in 
method  of  management,  in  component  species,  in  age,  in  density 
of  stocking,  or  in  quality  of  site,  that  is  clearly  distinct  from  the 
surrounding  forest.  The  stand  as  a  unit  of  forest  description  is 
ideal,  since  it  is  at  the  same  time  the  true  unit  of  silviculture 
and  forest  organization.  But  the  necessity  of  pushing  the 
reconnaissance  work  and  the  size  of  the  working  plan  area  often 
makes  it  more  feasible  to  confine  the  description  to  the  survey 
unit — such  as  the  section — or  to  an  entire  watershed  (in  unsur- 
veyed  and  very  mountainous  country),  leaving  it  to  the  forest 
organizer  to  combine  the  various  descriptions  and  smooth 
out  their  differences  and  discrepancies  into  a  general  forest 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  33 

description  for  the  working  plan.  At  the  same  time  the  forest 
organizer  is  helpless  if  these  specific  forest  descriptions  are 
inadequate  or  inaccurate.  Nor  need  the  description  contain 
many  words;  for  mere  stereotyped  repetition  is  both  tiresome 
and  futile. 

The  outline  given  above  for  forest  description  must,  of  course, 
be  supplemented  by  a  report  on  logging  and  milling  methods 
and  costs  if  an  appraisal  of  stumpage  values  is  to  be  a  part  of 
the  working  plan.     The  following  outHne  is  suggested: 

Lumber: 


Stump  to  pond. 

(a)  Logging  operations  with  equipment 

used, 

I. 

FelHng,  Umbing  and  sawing  into 

logs. 

2. 

Brush  disposal. 

a.  Piling. 

b.  Scattering. 

c.  Dragging  from  trees. 

3- 

Skidding  or  bunching. 

4- 

HauUng  to  railroad. 

a.  Big  wheels. 

b.  Wagons. 
t-.   Go-devils. 
d.  Sleighs. 

e.  Steam  skidders  (several  types). 

/.  Electricity. 

5- 

Loading  on  cars. 

a.  Horse  power. 

b.  Steam  power. 

ib)  Transportation  to  mill. 

I. 

Trucks. 

2. 

Chutes. 

3- 

Flumes. 

4- 

Railroads. 

5- 

Tramways. 

6. 

Traction  engines. 

34  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

7.  Sleighs. 

8.  Streams — driving. 

9.  Ponds — hot  and  cold, 
(c)  Logging  administration. 

1.  Camps. 

2.  Commissary. 

3.  Labor. 

4.  Supervision. 

5.  Scaling. 

6.  Animals. 

11.  From  pond  into  cars. 

(a)  Milling  and  equipment  by  types  of  mills. 

1.  Sawing. 

a.  Hoisting  logs  from   pond  to   mill  deck — scal- 
ing. 
h.  Steam  nigger. 

c.  Log  carriages  (shot  gun  or  cable  feed). 

d.  Saws  (sash,  gang,  circular  or  band). 

e.  Re-saw. 

/.   Saw  fihng. 

2.  Edging. 

3.  Trimming. 

4.  Conveyor  system. 

5.  Power. 

6.  Transmission. 

7.  Electricity  (lighting  system). 

8.  Hog. 

9.  Refuse  burner. 

{h)  Yarding  by  types  of  mills. 

1.  Grading  and  grading  rules. 

2.  Conveying  from  grading  table  to  piles  in  yard,  or 

kiln. 

3.  Dry  kilns — t>'pes,  etc. 

4.  Loading  on  cars, 
(c)  Planing. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(d)  By-products. 

1.  Lath. 

2.  Shingles. 

3.  Boxes. 

(e)  Mining  administration. 

1.  Supervision. 

a.  Mill. 

b.  Office. 

2.  Labor. 

a.  Mill. 

b.  Office. 

Ill    From  cars  to  consumer. 

1.  Methods  of  selling. 

2.  Transportation. 

3.  Markets. 

Hewn  railroad  ties: 

1.  Specifications. 

2.  Cutting. 

3.  Hewing  and  peeling. 

4.  Delivering. 

Telephone  poles: 

1.  Specifications. 

2.  Cutting  and  peeling. 

3.  Delivering. 

Fence  posts  and  stays: 

1.  Specifications. 

2.  Cutting  and  peeling. 

3.  Delivering. 

Mining  timbers: 

1.  Kinds  and  specifications. 

2.  Cutting  and  peeling. 

3.  Hauling  to  cars. 


36  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

4.  Transportation. 

5.  Markets. 

Cordwood: 

1.  Specifications. 

2.  Cutting  and  stacking. 

3.  Hauling. 

4.  Loading  on  cars. 

5.  Transportation. 

6.  Markets. 

7.  Supervision  and  labor. 

Cooperage  stock: 

1.  Specifications. 

a.  Heading  stock. 
h.  Stave  material. 

2.  Felling  and  making  bolts. 

3.  Disposal  of  brush. 

4.  Hauling  bolts  to  mill  and  piling  in  yard. 

5.  Manufacture  of  staves  and  stacking  in  yard. 

a.  Heading. 

1.  Sawing. 

2.  Sorting. 

3.  Stacking. 
h.  Staves. 

1.  Equalizing. 

2.  Sawing  or  "  bucking." 

3.  Listing. 

4.  Grading. 

5.  Stacking. 

6.  Transporting  staves  to  railroad. 

In  addition  to  logging  and  milling  methods  and  costs,  the 
logging  conditions  should  be  summarized  for  each  logging  unit, 
that  is  for  each  part  of  a  forest  which  can  conveniently  be  made 
the  basis  of  an  individual  logging  operation.  The  following 
headings,  taken  from  the  outline  on  pp.  222-225  of  Chapman's 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  37 

"  Forest  Valuation,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1915,  will  be 
found  useful  for  this  purpose.* 

A .  Modification  of  logging  required  by  silvicultural  demands. 

1.  Amount  and  character  of  merchantable  timber  to  be 

left  standing. 

2.  Methods  of  brush  disposal  and  precautions  required, 

for  protection  of  young  timber. 

B.  General  conditions  affecting  appraisal. 

1.  Market  value  of  lumber. 

2.  Size  of  mill  and  cost  of  milling,  with  profits. 

3.  Cost  of  main  transportation  system. 

C.  Specific  conditions  affecting  appraisal. 

1.  Specific  costs  of  logging  the  unit. 

2.  Specific  appraisal  of  value  of  standing  timber  per  unit 

of  log  scale. 

D.  Appraised    value   of   standing    timber,    by    species,    for 

specific    units    of   product,    modified    for   overrun    to 
apply  to  standing  timber,  j 

Division  of  Area 

In  order  to  facilitate  the  management  of  a  forest,  it  is  sys- 
tematically divided  into  units  of  area.  A  forest  may  be  divided 
from  various  points  of  view  into  units,  either  localized  in  the 
field,  or  differentiated  in  the  working  plan,  or  both. 

The  division  of  area  for  purposes  of  forest  organization  is 
in  Europe  considered  the  prerequisite  of  any  working  plan. 
For  the  extensive  conditions  prevailing  in  many  parts  of  America 
the  elaborate  divisions  of  area  used  in  Europe  can  well  be 
waived.     Indeed  it  is  conceivable  that  a  useful  working  plan 

*  More  detailed  outlines  for  studies  of  lumber  operations  have  been  pub- 
lished by  the  Yale  Forest  School  (Prof.  R.  C.  Bryant),  and  by  the  N.  Y. 
State  College  of  Forestry  at  Syracuse  University  (Vol.  XVI,  No.  7.) 

t  For  detailed  methods  of  determining  the  value  of  merchantable  standing 
timber,  see  Chapman:  "Forest  Valuation,"  Chapter  XI;  also  Roth:  "Forest 
Valuation,"  Chapter  VI;  also,  "  Manual  of  Stumpage  Appraisals,"  U.  S.  Forest 
Service,  November,  19 14. 


38  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

could  be  constructed  without  any  systematic  division  of  the 
area.  The  need  for  these  divisions  grows  with  the  refinements 
in  management,  and  while  it  would  be  mere  play  in  most  Amer- 
ican forests  to  mark  each  compartment  and  subcompartment 
in  the  map  or  on  the  ground,  a  skeleton  outline  of  the  salient 
divisions  will  often  serve  to  facilitate  and  to  systematize  the 
working  of  a  forest.     Unnecessary  divisions  must  be  avoided. 

For  these  divisions  topographic  features,  roads,  trails,  etc., 
should  be  made  the  boundaries;  even  in  flat  country  the  hewing 
through  of  compartment  Unes  is  justified  only  under  most 
intensive  conditions. 

The  customary  subdivisions  of  a  forest  are: 

The  working  unit  (syn.  working  plan  unit.  Ger.  Wirt- 
schaftsganzes). 

The  working  group  (syn.  management  class,  working  block, 
working  circle,  working  section,  Ger,  Betriebsklasse). 

The  block. 

The  compartment. 

The  lot  or  subcompartment. 

These  may  be  defined  as  follows: 

Working  Unit.^The  forest  area  managed  under  an  indi- 
vidual working  plan  and  by  means  of  the  plan  of  regulation  of 
the  cut,  usually  with  the  idea  of  a  sustained  yield.  It  may  or 
may  not  coincide  with  an  administrative  unit. 

Working  Group. — A  unit  of  forest  organization,  comprising 
an  aggregate  of  compartments  or  stands  to  be  managed  under 
the  same  silvicultural  method  and  rotation. 

Block. — A  major  division  of  the  working  unit,  being  a  per- 
manent land  subdivision  in  the  forest,  intermediate  in  size 
between  the  working  unit  and  a  compartment.  A  block  is 
usually  based  on  topography,  such  as  the  whole  or  portion  of  a 
drainage,  containing  from  looo  to  100,000  acres. 

Since  the  division  of  a  block  is  usually  topographic,  a  suit- 
able local  name  can  generally  be  taken  from  some  salient  topo- 
graphic or  cultural  feature  contained  therein. 

Compartment. — A  unit  of  forest  organization  for  purposes 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  39 

of  orientation  and  silvicultural  operation.  It  is  a  permanent  sub- 
division. It  may  or  may  not  coincide  with  the  pubHc  land  sur- 
vey. There  may  be  an  indefinite  number  of  compartments  in  a 
block.  The  limits  of  a  compartment  are  rectilinear  in  the  plains 
and  follow  topographic  features  in  hill  and  mountain  country. 
The  area  of  a  compartment  varies  with  the  intensity  of  manage- 
ment and  seldom  exceeds  500  acres.*  In  a  forest  under  com- 
plete management,  the  compartment  boundaries  are  shown  on 
the, forest  maps  and  are  permanently  marked  on  the  ground 
by  blazed  lines,  durable  monuments,  posting,  roads,  trails, 
streams  or  other  well-defined  natural  features. 

The  compartment  is  created  for  purposes  of  easier  orienta- 
tion in  the  woods  and  for  facilitating  and  systematizing  the  keep- 
ing of  detailed  forest  records.  Where  the  boundaries  of  com- 
partments are  hewn  out  or  made  into  roads,  these  serve  the  addi- 
tional purposes  of  fire  lines,  logging  roads,  points  of  attack  in 
cutting  series,  and  as  convenient  units  where  game  is  beaten 
from  cover. t 

The  Forest  Service  apparently  favors  the  use  of  chance  or 
logging  chance  in  place  of  compartment.  This  is  a  term  in 
common  local  use,  more  or  less  synonymous  with  logging 
unit.     It  is  not  favored  as  a  term  in  forest  management. 

Lot  or  Subcompartment. — A  permanent  or  temporary  sub- 
division of  the  compartment  based  upon  differences  in  stand, 
necessitating  a  different  method  of  silvicultural  treatment. 
An  example  of  permanent  subdivision  is  the  case  of  swamp  in 
the  midst  of  pine  land.  An  example  of  temporary  subdivision 
is  the  case  of  a  severe  burn  in  the  midst  of  uninjured,  mature 
forest. 

Designation  of  Divisions. — Working  units  and  blocks  are 
given  names:    compartments  are  numbered;   subcompartments 

*  Roth:  "  Forest  Regulation,"  p.  38,  says:  "  It  is  feasible  even  in  high  moun- 
tain districts  to  stay  below  200  acres  in  the  average  size  of  the  lot." 

t  Hence  in  the  plains,  e.g.,  in  the  Prussian  pineries,  the  compartment  is  called 
a  "  Jagen  "  i.e.,  a  "  hunting."  The  average  size  in  Prussia  is  25  hectares  =  6i  j 
acres. 


40  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

are  lettered;  e.g.,  a  paper-birch  thicket  in  midst  of  spruce 
compartments  on  the  lower  slopes  of  Mount  Tecumseh  block 
in  the  Waterville,  N.  H.,  basin,  would  be  designated  as  29a, 
Tecumseh  Block,  Waterville  Unit. 

Boundaries  of  Divisions. — Before  designating  the  boundaries 
of  any  working-plan  divisions,  either  in  the  field  or  on  the  map, 
the  forest  organizer,  in  consultation  with  the  owner  and  the 
administrator  of  the  forest,  or  both,  should  decide  just  what 
divisions  are  to  be  made  and  on  what  basis.  The  determination 
of  working  units  is  a  sine  qua  non,  but  whether  blocks,  com- 
partments, and  subcompartments  are  also  to  be  segregated 
depends  entirely  on  the  specific  needs  of  the  forest.  Large 
forests  should  almost  always  be  divided  into  blocks.  The 
further  subdivision  into  compartments  and  subcompartments 
is  necessary  only  where  intensive  working  plans  are  practicable. 

Having  decided  just  how  far  to  go  in  the  matter  of  divisions, 
the  forest  organizer  keeps  this  in  mind  during  his  preliminary 
reconnaissance  and  during  the  entire  progress  of  the  field  work. 
The  details  of  forest  description  and  the  unit  described  depend 
on  the  extent  of  subdivision.  That  is,  if  blocks  are  the  minimum 
divisions  possible,  the  organizer  needs  only  the  briefest  descrip- 
tions by  sections  or  other  survey  units  and  a  more  detailed  gen- 
eral description  by  watersheds  or  other  appropriate  units. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  refinements  of  compartments  and  sub- 
compartments are  possible  the  unit  of  description  must  be  the 
stand,  and  the  forest  description  of  each  stand  must  be  suffi- 
ciently detailed  so  that  the  forest  organizer  can  determine 
therefrom  whether  to  make  it  a  subcompartment,  and  its  func- 
tion in  regulating  the  cut. 

Obviously,  therefore  the  provisional  boundaries  of  the 
minimum  unit  of  division  decided  upon  must  be  noted  in  the 
progress  of  the  forest  survey  and  noted  on  the  map. 

As  the  work  of  gathering  the  data  progresses,  the  forest 
organizer  keeps  always  in  mind  the  possible  division  of  the 
forest  and,  map  in  hand,  goes  through  the  area  to  determine 
its  most   advantageous  arrangement.      His   task  will  be   the 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  41 

easier  if  the  forest  description  data  are  well  and  carefully- 
gathered. 

Where  artificial  lines  are  cut  through,  those  running  with  the 
prevailing  storm  direction  arc  called,  in  Germany,  "  Haupt- 
Gestell  ''  (Main  Frame)  or  ''  Wirtschafts  streifen  "  (Manage- 
ment Stripe),  those  runnmg  at  right  angles  thereto,  "  Neben- 
Gestell  "  (Accessory  Frame)  or  "  Schneussen  "or  "  Schneisen."  * 
The  former  average  15  to  30  feet  in  width,  the  latter  6|  feet 
to  1 5  feet ;  in  this  way  they  serve  as  a  network  of  logging  roads 
and  fire  lines.  The  "  Schneisen "  serve  also  to  strengthen 
the  stand  against  windfall;  for  along  them  develops  the  "  wind- 
mantle  '' — i.e.,  the  crowns  of  the  trees  on  the  border  form  an 
impenetrable  mantle  and  protect  the  interior  of  the  stand  from 
windfall.  This  is  especially  important  in  spruce  and  similar 
shallow-rooted  species.  As  the  lower  branches  show  signs  of 
dying  off,  the  strip  is  widened  so  as  to  let  in  the  necessary  addi- 
tional hght  and  keep  the  wind  mantle  intact,  until  it  reaches  a 
maximum  width  of  30  or  40  feet.  These  "Schneisen"  are 
then  made  the  points  of  attack  for  the  cutting  series,!  since  the 
stand  to  leeward  of  them  has  through  its  wind  mantle  ample 
protection  against  the  storms. 

Block  divisions  are  always  natural  and  are  chosen  on  a  large 
scale — watersheds,  drainage  basins,  are  suitable  units.  The 
single  block  may  contain  many  thousand  acres;  its  shape  is 
immaterial;  the  governing  considerations  are  logging  and  mar- 
ket conditions.     The  block  is  usually  a  main  logging  unit  or 

*  In  Prussia  the  "  Hauptgestelle  "  are  700  to  800  yards  apart;  the  "  Neben- 
gestelle  "  are  350  to  400  yards  apart. 

t  Culling  Series. — A  cutting  series  or  felling  series  is  an  aggregation  of  stands 
into  a  proposed  or  actual  sequence  of  felling  areas — that  is,  areas  on  which 
cutting  operations  are  being  conducted  or  areas  designated  for  cutting.  The 
object  of  such  a  series  is  a  distribution  of  felling  areas  for  administrative  reasons 
or  to  secure  a  final  satisfactory  distribution  or  location  of  age  classes,  especially 
to  avoid  damage  by  windfall  and  insects  due  to  uniformity  of  stand  and  size  of 
felling  area.  It  is  intended  to  interrupt  a  regular  sequence  of  age  classes.  It  is 
quite  generally  used  abroad  in  spruce  to  prevent  windfall  and  pine  to  prevent 
insect  damage. 

It  is  not  used  in  broadlcaf  forests  or  in  any  selection  forest. 


42  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

group  of  logging  units.  Its  segregation  requires  a  complete 
knowledge  of  such  matters  as  present  market  conditions,  lines 
of  transportation,  outlets  for  the  timber,  and  the  probable 
changes  and  developments  in  all  three. 

How  far,  if  at  all,  the  blocks  should  coincide  with  the  admin- 
istrative divisions,  such  as  ranger  districts,  must  depend  on  local 
conditions.  It  is  often  convenient  to  have  block  and  ranger 
district  coincide,  and  in  level  country,  such  as  the  Prussian 
pineries,  this  is  entirely  feasible.  But  the  purposes  of  admin- 
istrative division  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  working  plan 
that  the  coincidence  should  never  be  secured  at  a  sacrifice  of 
either  forest  administration  or  forest  organization. 

The  boundaries  of  blocks  and  subcompartments  need  not 
be  marked  on  the  ground.  Compartments  must  be  marked 
on  the  ground  by  blazed  hnes,  durable  monuments,  posting, 
roads,  trails,  streams  or  other  well-defined  natural  features. 
A  convenient  way  is  stencilling  the  number  of  the  compartment 
in  white  paint  on  the  bark  of  a  tree  nearest  to  the  corner  thereof. 
Where  the  lines  are  not  actually  cut  through,  their  intersections 
with  roads,  trails,  streams,  etc.,  should  be  similarly  designated. 
Where  road  or  trail  or  stream  itself  serves  as  the  boundary, 
this  is  not  necessary,  but  merely  corner  monuments  or  occasional 
guide-monuments  are  placed. 

On  the  map  the  boundary  of  the  working  unit  is  marked 
by  heavy  dot  and  dash  — .  — .  — . — ;    the  blocks  by  dashes 

;    the  compartments  by  a  dotted  line 

;    and  the  subcompartments  by  a  thin 

unbroken  line . 

References. — Roth,  "  Forest  Regulation,"  pp.  34-43,  Illick,  "  The  Subdivision 
of  Forests,"  F.  Q.,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  2,  pp.  183-198. 

Maps  and  Tables 

The  various  data  collected  in  the  field  should,  as  far  as 
possible,  be  entered  on  maps  and  summarized  in  tables.  In 
this  way  they  are  made  available  at  a  glance. 

Maps,  or,  at  least,  some  map  of  the  forest,  however  crude. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  43 

are    indispensable    in    forest    organization.     The    forest     map 
should  contain: 

(a)  Essential  topographic  features;  contours  are  seldom 
necessary  in  level  country;  hachures  are  not  ordinarily  advis- 
able. 

(b)  Roads  and  trails,  railroads,  houses,  barns,  and  other 
"  culture." 

(c)  Boundary  (exterior)  of  the  forest;  also  all  other  interior 
holdings  by  other  owners. 

(d)  The  forest  types;  also  all  burns  and  cut-over  area; 
all  barrens  and  all  land  under  cultivation  or  pasturage  (non- 
forest  land)  within  the  exterior  boundaries. 

a,  b,  c,  and  d  may  form  one  base  map,  or  they  may  be  made 
into  separate  maps  as  the  wealth  of  detail  necessitates  or  con- 
venience dictates.  Where  the  area  is  too  large  to  be  shown  com- 
pletely on  one  map  of  ordinary  scale  (^  or  i  inch  to  the  mile), 
a  small  scale  location  map  can  be  made  and  as  many  large  scale 
detail  maps  as  are  desired.  In  surveyed  country  a  separate  map 
of  each  township,  compiled  from  section  sketches,  is  advis- 
able. 

Armed  with  this  base  map  the  forest  organizer  sketches  m 
from  survey  notes,  detail  sketches,  and  forest  description  the 
following  additional  points: 

{e)  Provisional  division  of  area  into 

Blocks, 

Compartments, 

Subcompartments, 
all  depending  on  the  divisions  previously  decided  upon.  Where 
the  forest  is  approximately  even-aged  and  the  method  of  regu- 
lation is  to  consider  age  classes,  these  should  be  entered  on  the 
map  by  writing  the  age  class  of  the  subcompartment  in  Roman 
numerals,  and  coloring  or  shading  it  accordingly.  Barrens 
and  treeless  land  are  left  blank.  Often  the  organizer  must 
go  over  the  area,  map  in  hand,  in  order  to  settle  some  uncer- 
tainty on  the  ground.  The  boundaries  had  best  be  sketched 
only  in  pencil.     If  the  original  maps  are  made  on  tracing  linen 


SKETCH   MAP 

OF  PART  OF  A   BLOCK 

SHOWING  THE  ARRANGEMENT   OF 

COMPARTMENTS,  SUBCOMPARTMENTS, 

AGE   CLASSES  AND   CUTTING   SERIES. 


LEGEND 

■BLOCK   BOUNDARY 
5  =  COMPARTMENT   NUMBER 

—  =  COMPARTMENT  BOUNDARY 
«  =  SUBCOMPARTMENT   LETTER 

—  =  SUBCOMPARTMENT  BOUNDARY 
"*■  =  PROGRESS  OF  CUTTING  SERIES 
35  =AGE   OF  STAND 

AGE  CLASSES 


1-20 

21-40 
11 

41-60 
111 

6,-80 
IV 

'°T  ""^= 

i 

i 

Fig.   1. 


44 


THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


45 


or  on  thin  bond  paper,  blue-prints,  or,  still  better.  Van  Dyke 
copies  can  be  used  for  this  provisional  division  of  the  area. 
This  provisional  map  quite  suffices  until  the  final  working- 


Scale  1:25000 


1000  Meters 
20  Meters  contour  Interval 


Fig.  2. — Division  of  a  Pru.s.sian  Forest  into  Compartments. 
(After  Schilling.) 

plan  document  is  prepared,  when  the  maps  may  be  elaborated 
as  much  as  is  desired.  E.g.,  the  age  classes  can  be  shaded  or 
colored,  the  t>pe  colored  or  symbolized,  etc. 


46  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

The  prevailing  local  storm  direction  is  entered  (where  it  is 
not  known  already  it  must  be  determined;  in  a  mountainous 
region  the  storms  often  follow  the  direction  of  the  main  drain- 
age) by  means  of  long  dotted  arrows  (see  Fig.  i). 

The  next  step  is  to  obtain  the  areas  of  the  various  divisions, 
types,  alienations,  etc.  This  is  most  easily  done  by  means  of  a 
planimeter.  One  decimal  place  usually  suffices.  The  larger 
areas  are  always  measured  first — e.g.,  the  blocks  before  the  com- 
partments— the  sum  of  the  smaller  divisions,  e.g.,  of  compart- 
ments, should  check  with  the  area  of  the  larger  unit  (block) 
containing  them.  Minor  errors  can  be  proportioned.  Roads, 
streams,  boundary  lines  which  have  been  cut  through,  etc.,  are 
seldom  calculated  as  separate  areas  unless  they  are  excessively 
wide,  e.g.,  more  than  20  feet. 

Tables  are  now  drawn  up  to  contain  these  and  other  data 
which  can  be  summarized.     These  may  be: 

(a)  Stand  Table. — A  tabular  enumeration  showing  separately 
for  each  diameter  class  and  species,  the  number  of  trees  on  a 
given  unit  of  area,  usually  an  average  acre.  The  corresponding 
volume  may  or  may  not  be  given. 

Obviously,  this  form  of  table  is  most  useful  in  the  uneven- 
aged  forest.  The  following  example  of  such  a  table  is  taken 
from  Bulletin  11  of  the  N.  Y.  State  Conservation  Commis- 
sion,* based  on  virgin  stands  of  hardwoods  in  the  Catskill 
Mountains. 

(&)  Stock  Table. — A  tabular  enumeration  s"iiowing  separately 
for  each  diameter  class  and  species,  the  volume  of  timber  upon 
a  given  unit  of  area,  usually  an  average  acre. 

This  form  of  table  is  best  adapted  to  the  uneven-aged  forest. 
It  serves  as  an  excellent  basis  for  computing  the  estimates, 
by  simply  multiplying  the  values  given  in  the  table  by  the 
total  acreage.  The  following  example  of  such  a  table  is  taken 
from  Bulletin  11  of  the  N.  Y.  State  Conservation  Commission. f 

*  Bulletin  11,  "  Forest  Survey  of  a  Parcel  of  State  Land,"  Albany,  N.  Y. 

1915- 

t  Ibid. 


THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


47 


Slope  Type 
84.86  sample  acres 


Example  of  Stand  Table 

Average  number  trees  per  acre  based  upon 


D.  B.  H. 
Inches. 


Bal- 
sam. 


Hem- 
lock. 


Maple. 


Miscel- 
laneous 


Total 

Per  cent. 


3107 
38.35 


3-88 

2-95 

1.79 

I-5I 

1. 14 

1.32 

1.24 

1 .06 

1. 17 

I-I5 

113 

•94 

.69 

.67 

.61 

•55 

■47 

•54 

•44 

•  :9 

.21 
.19 
.09 
.09 

.06 
.04 


24  50 
30  24 


09 


384 

7.08 


2-55 
3^i5 


2.97 
3-66 


2.42 
3.00 


J^,  C  State  Coiiege 


48 


THE  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


Example  of  Stock  Table 

Slope  Type.^ — Average  volume  per  acre  based  upon  84.86 
acres,  board  feet. 


D.B.H. 
Inches. 

Bal- 
sam. 

Hem- 
lock. 

Beech. 

Birch. 

IT     1            A   1.         Bass-     Miscel- 
Maple.        Ash.       ^^^^_    ^^^^^^^ 

1 

Total. 

7.... 

4-55 

6.80 

11-35 

8. 

378 

6.41 

10 

19 

9 

1-74 

12.18 

13 

92 

10 

2.73 

17.98 

20 

71 

II 

1.06 

24.09 

25 

15 

12 

•6S 

28.83 

29 

48 

13 

26.68 

220.7 

8         73 

16 

59-94      4 

.gc    12.60 

5-81 

403 

87 

14 

21.45 

238.0 

5       100 

70 

85.68    II 

.04     11.04 

1 .15 

469 

II 

15 

15-48 

200.2 

2       146 

25 

89 . 46      8 

.19      9.36 

468 

96 

16 

18,36 

200.4 

0       167 

90 

98-82      5 

.76    16.06 

507 

30 

17 

22.23 

126.6 

3      184 

19 

117.68      8 

•  65     10.38 

469 

76 

18 

20.51 

92.8 

4       174 

84 

101.43      4 

.20    23.10 

416 

92 

19 

13.60 

57-6 

0      149 

73 

122.96      2 

.54     20.32 

366 

75 

20 

7.78 

44. c 

)o      167 

SO 

76.50    .. 

..       17.70 

313 

48 

21 

17-56 

28.2 

6      181 

17 

87-73      3 

-45    24.15 

342 

32 

22 

19.68 

17-? 

5      181 

05 

92.51      8 

.00    20 .  00 

339 

19 

23 

27-15 

8.2 

8      170 

61 

95-58     -. 

301 

62 

24 

11.86 

4-/ 

3      209 

52 

84.04    . 

5.20 

31S 

35 

'5 

12.80 

10. t 

6      179 

52 

45 -10    . 

.  •       23 . 40 

271 

48 

26 

169 

26 

38.70    . 

207 

96 

27 

14-50 

7-3 

3         58 

70 

48. 95     . 

129 

28 

28 

38.25 

95 

95 

32.20    . 

166 

40 

29 

49 

05 

19.00    . 

68 

05 

30 

52 

92 

9.80    . 

9 .  5c 

72 

22 

31 

8.85 

68 

.09 

505     . 

81 

99 

32 

38 

■94 

15.6c     . 

54 

54 

33 

27 

.16 

16.00    . 

43 

16 

34 

10.05 

7 

.09 

5^50     . 

22 

64 

35 

29 

-S6 

29 

56 

36 

7 

■  6c 

7 

69 

37 

38 

8 

-29 

8 

29 

39 

40 

Tota! 

145 

403 , 08 

1,257. 

53  2,698 

.84 

1,348.23    5i 

).73  202.81 

6.96 

5,988.69 

%... 

.2 

5      6.73 

21. < 

X5        45 

-05 

22.52 

■95      338 

.12 

THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  49 

(c)  Area  tables  (by  types,  by  divisions  of  area). 

(d)  Age-class  table  (comparison  with  the  normal). 

Any  or  all  of  these  tables  may  be  constructed  as  the  data  warrant 
and  as  there  is  occasion  for  them.  An  age-class  table  is  neces- 
sary only  where  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  plays  a  part 
in  the  regulation  of  the  cut. 

Tables  (a),  (b),  and  (c),  together  with  abbreviated  notes 
on  site,  density,  age,  and  salient  silvical  characteristics,  can  be 
combined  into  a  general  stand  table,  that  is,  a  tabulation 
showing  something  of  the  condition  of  the  stand  on  the  several 
units  of  area.  Only  the  more  important  items  respecting  the 
stand  are  included,  such  as  merchantable  and  total  volume 
by  classes  of  material  (sawtimber,  cordwood,  ties,  etc.),  species, 
age,  stock  density,  etc.  Such  a  table  is  usually  supplemental  to 
map  records.  It  is  compiled  from  the  forest  description  and 
from  the  stand  and  stock  tables  of  individual  units  of  area. 
The  particular  form  which  this  table  takes  should  be  varied 
to  meet  the  needs  of  the  working  plan  in  question.  The  pur- 
pose is  to  give  the  essential  data  for  the  regulation  of  the  cut; 
these  essential  data  vary  with  the  method  of  regulation  which 
is  chosen.  In  the  example  the  table  has  been  made  as  complete 
as  is  necessary  even  under  intensive  conditions.  The  hypo- 
thetical data  would  have  required  a  correspondingly  intensive 
forest  survey. 

These  data  will  be  required  for  only  those  forests  which 
permit  of  an  intensive  management.  However,  the  same  form 
of  table,  with  minor  modifications,  applies  to  even  the  most 
extensive  conditions.     For  example: 

If  the  estimate  and  description  is  by  survey  units,  e.g.,  by 
sections,  quarter-sections,  or  even  forties,  the  arrangement  of 
the  columns  would  be  varied  so  that  Col.  2  would  be  town- 
ship and  section,  Col.  3  the  quarter-section  or  forty.  Cols.  5, 
7,  9,  II,  13,  and  15  would  give  the  area,  not  in  acres,  put  in  per 
cent  of  total.  Cols.  6,  8,  10*  12,  14,  and  16  would  usually  indicate 
the  age  only  as  Over-mature  (0),  mature  (M),  or  young  (F). 
Cols.  23-29  would  usually  be  recorded  separately  for  each  type. 


50  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

If  the  estimate  and  description  are  lumped  for  the  entire  area 
of  one  type  within  the  same  watershed,  Col.  2  would  be  the 
name  of  the  type,  Col.  3  would  be  blank,  Cols.  5  to  22  inclusive 
would  be  as  in  the  paragraph  above.  Cols.  22,  and  26  would  be 
very  general,  Cols.  24  and  25  would  fall  away,  but  Cols.  28  and  29 
would  be  retained. 

From  the  above  data,  a  rough  age-class  table  can,  and,  for 
all  methods  of  regulating  the  cut  by  the  distribution  of  the  age 
classes,  should  be  constructed.  Assuming  in  the  hypothetical 
data  of  the  general  stand  table  above  that  the  rotation  is  160 
years,  the  form  of  age-class  table  would  then  be  as  follows: 
See  Age-Class  Table  A. 

In  the  above  example  if  only  the  symbols  "  0,"  "  if,"  and 
"  F "  are  used,  the  comparison  would  be  as  in  Age-Class 
Table  B. 

Were  the  intermediate  steps  0/M  and  Y/M  used  also  to 
designate  the  approximate  age  of  the  stands,  the  table  would 
read  as  in  Age-Class  Table  C. 

Note. — In  addition  to  the  maps  and  tables  listed,  status  records  are  often 
desirable.  These  are  records  showing  the  ownership  of  lands.  Complete  status 
records  will  show  in  detail  the  chain  of  title  for  each  parcel  of  land  and  also  all 
servitudes  and  easements  attaching  to  the  land.  In  addition,  they  usually  show 
the  location  and  extent  of  all  qualified  or  temporary  alienations  such  as  unpatented 
mineral  claims,  leased  areas,  or  lands  otherwise  specifically  under  permit  or 
affected  by  outstanding  contracts,  as  for  the  sale  of  timber,  etc.  Status  records 
usually  consist  of  sets  of  maps,  often  called  "  tract  books,"  and  of  written  or 
tabulated  records  supplemental  to  the  map  records. 


THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   V/ORKING  PLANS 


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THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 


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THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  53 

SECTION  THREE 

DETERMINATION  OF  METHOD  OF  TREATMENT 

Governing  Conditions 

The  method  of  treatment  of  any  given  forest  depends  on 
the  wishes  and  purposes  of  its  owner.  It  is  very  necessary  that 
these  fundamentals  be  decided  in  consultation  between  the 
owner  and  administrator,  and  the  forest  organizer;  for  the 
working  plan  must  be  arranged  accordingly. 

Four  main  issues  must  be  decided  before  any  complete 
working  plan  is  possible : 

1.  The  unit  of  regulation. 

2.  Object  of  management. 

3.  The  silvicultural  method  of  management. 

4.  Rotation. 

The  Unit  of  Regulation 

The  unit  of  regulation  or  working  unit,  as  defined  above, 
is  that  area  which  is  to  be  managed  under  an  individual  work- 
ing plan,  and  usually  for  a  sustained  yield.  The  working  unit 
may  or  may  not  coincide  with  the  administrative  unit,  e.g., 
the  single  national  forest. 

In  creating  working  units,  the  doctrine  of  sustained  yield 
must  be  treated  broadly.  A  sustained  yield  presupposes  three 
things : 

(i)  A  SI  stained  market  with  attendant  transportation  facil- 
ities rendering  every  part  of  the  forest  accessible  now  or  pro- 
gressively SO  in  the  near  future. 

(2)  An  area  ample,  under  the  silvicultural  methods  chosen, 
to  supply  this  sustained  market. 

(3)  Stable  market  prices  for  the  lumber  and  other  forest 
products. 

These  three  factors  do  not  always  coincide  with  the  admin- 
istrative units.  The  boundary  of  the  administrative  unit  is 
purely  for  convenience  in  the  management  of  the  forest;    the 


54  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

boundary  of  the  working  unit  is,  as  far  as  limitations  of  owner- 
ship permit,  an  economic  one  within  which  the  marketing  of 
timber  is  controlled  by  certain  factors  of  consumption  or  dis- 
tribution. Economic  reasons  may  warrant  the  over-cutting 
on  one  administrative  unit  and  the  under-cutting  on  another, 
but  if  a  sustained  yield  from  the  entire  market  unit  is  main- 
tained it  is  of  small  moment  if  the  stand  on  one  or  more  of  the 
administrative  subdivisions  is  over-cut. 

This  broad  construction  is  of  course  adapted  to  the  extensive 
conditions  existing  in  most  parts  of  America.  In  Europe,  e.g., 
in  Prussia,  it  has  long  been  customary  to  require  a  sustained 
yield  by  administrative  units — i.e.,  for  each  oberforsterei  or 
supervisor's  area— recently  it  has  been  extended  in  Prussia  to 
cover  each  ranger's  district!  But  in  America  the  unit  of  regula- 
tion, the  working  unit,  must  be  practical,  must  be  the  market 
unit,  just  as  the  subdivision,  the  block,  usually  is  the  main  logging 
unit. 

Where  administrative  unit  areas  belonging  to  the  same 
owner  are  far  apart  or  exceedingly  large,  they  are  not  included 
in  the  same  working  unit.  E.g.,  it  would  be  preposterous  to 
make  a  single  working  plan  for  the  two  divisions  of  the  Florida 
National  Forest  or  for  the  whole  complex  of  contiguous  national 
forests  in  Washington  and  Oregon.  But  it  is  entirely  correct 
and  logical  to  combine,  e.g.,  the  contiguous  and  similar  Coco- 
nino and  Tusayan  National  Forests  in  northern  Arizona.  The 
administrative  boundary  separating  these  two  national  forests 
is  a  purely  arbitrary  one;  they  are  essentially  the  same  in 
character  and  composition,  and  are  parts  of  the  same  market 
unit. 

The  working  unit  is  given  some  convenient  local  name 
which  is  simple  and  characteristic. 

Object  of  Management 

At  the  working-plan  conference  between  owner,  admin- 
istrator, and  organizer,  the  object  for  which  the  forest  is  to  be 
managed  must  be  decided,  i.e.,  whether 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  55 

1.  For  sustained  yield, 

2.  For  exploitation, 

3.  For  protection, 

4.  For  aesthetic  purposes, 

5.  For  a  game  preserve, 

or  how  far  each  or  all  of  these  or  any  other  considerations  are 
to  govern. 

If  the  forest  is  to  be  a  continuously  productive  one,  the  next 
point  to  decide  is  the  class  of  product  desired: 

1.  Sawtimber, 

2.  Cordwood, 

3.  Mining  timber, 

4.  Turpentine,  etc. 

It  must  also  be  decided,  if  the  yield  is  to  be  sustained, 
whether  it  is  to  be  periodic  or  annual.* 

The  satisfactory  solution  of  all  these  questions  demands  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  forest  finance  and  forest  policy  on  the 
part  of  the  organizer. 

SiLVICULTURAL   METHOD   OF   MANAGEMENT 

Having  decided  upon  the  unit  of  regulation  and  the  object 
of  management,  the  organizer,  in  conference  with  owner  and 
administrator,  should  decide,  provisionally,  upon  the  silvi- 
cultural  method  of  management;  for  the  method  of  regulating 
the  cut  varies  with  the  silvicultural  system  chosen. 

The  first  point  to  determine  is  whether  the  forest  is  to  be 
managed  as: 

High  forest,  i.e.,  a  forest  originating  from  seed; 
Coppice,  i.e.,  a  forest  in  which  reproduction  is  secured  by 
sprouts; 
or  Coppice  with  standards,  i.e.,  a  forest  in  which  seed- 
Hng  trees  or  selected  sprouts   (standards)   are  main- 
tained above  the  coppice  or  sprouts; 


*  For  excellent   comparison  of  properties  with  yearly  and  with   intermittent 
income,  see  Roth:  "  Forest  Valuation,"  pp.  82-84. 


56  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

or  is  to  be  converted  from  one  of  these  forms  to  another.  If 
high  forest  is  chosen,  the  method  of  reproduction  must  be  deter- 
mined provisionally,  that  is,  an  orderly  procedure  or  process, 
either  natural  or  artificial,  by  which  a  forest  is  renewed  or 
established.     The  following  methods  are  distinguished:  * 

1.  Clearcutting  with  artificial  reproduction.  Removal  of 
the  entire  stand  in  one  cut  with  artificial  reproduction  by 
direct  seeding  or  by  planting.  See  also  seed  tree  methods 
(b).     G.,  Kahlschlagwirtschaft.     F.,  Methode  par  coupe  unique. 

2.  Clearcutting  with  natural  reproduction.  Removal  of 
the  entire  stand  in  one  felHng,  reproduction  taking  place  by 
seed  from  the  marginal  stand  or  from  seed  in  the  ground.  This 
method  may  be  appHed  to  the  stand  by  cutting  a  strip  and,  when 
reproduction  has  taken  place,  seaming  off  an  additional  strip, 
called  strip  method.     G.,  Saumhieb.    F.,  Coupe  par  bandes. 

When  applied  by  removing  groups  of  trees  and  enlarging 
these  openings  until  the  entire  stand  is  removed  it  is  called 
group  method.  G.,  Kesselhieb,  Locherhieb.  F.,  Coupes  par 
trouees. 

3.  Seed  tree  methods,  (a)  Removal  of  the  entire  stand 
at  one  cut  excepting  a  small  number  of  seed  trees  left  singly 
on  the  area,  or  small  groups  or  blocks  of  seed  trees,  which  are 
expected  to  seed  the  area  thus  exposed. 

(b)  Removal  of  the  entire  stand  excepting  a  few  chosen 
individuals,  reserves,  left  uncut  for  a  period,  usually  for  a  second 
rotation,  after  the  stand  is  reproduced.  The  primary  purpose 
is  to  secure  increment  of  the  reserves  and  incidentally  seed. 
This  is  known  as  reserve  seed  tree  method.  It  is  applied  to  forests 
naturally  reproduced  and  to  those  artificially  reproduced  also. 
G.,  Ueberhaltbetrieb.  F.,  Traitement  en  futaie  avec  reserve 
sur  coupe  definitive. 

4.  Selection  method.  That  method  of  cutting  in  which 
single  trees,  usually  the  largest  and  ripest,  or  small  groups  of 
such  trees,  are  removed  and  reproduction  secured  under  the 


*  The  terminology  is  that  prepared  by  the  Society  of  American  Foresters. 


PLATE  IV. 


'k;.  1.— a  CoiiipartiiuMit  llcproducod  by  Slielterwoo.l  Cuttiiifi,  Baden. 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  Lincoln  Crowell. 


Fig.  2. — A  (.'oiniKirtinciit  licpiodiiced  I)}-  Selection  IJordcr  (utimg, 
Wiirtteniberg. 
Courtesy  of  Mr.  Lincoln  Crowell, 

[To  face  page  50] 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  57 

remaining  stand  and  in  the  openings.  It  is  usually  applied  in 
selection  forests.  When  groups  of  trees  are  taken  it  is  termed 
group  selection  method.  G.,  Plenterbetrieb,  Femelbetrieb.  F., 
Jardinage,  regime  de  la  futaie  jardinee. 

A  special  form  of  the  selection  method  is  termed  selection 
border  cutting  when  cuttings  are  made  in  narrow  strips,  in  most 
instances  beginning  on  the  north  border  and  progressing  south- 
ward, varying  in  character  from 'a  selection  cutting  farthest 
in  to  a  clear  cutting  on  the  edge  of  the  forest.  The  resulting 
forest  is  unevenaged  in  narrow  lines.     G.  Blendersaumschlag. 

5.  Shelterwood  method.  A  method  of  securing  natural 
reproduction  under  the  temporary  shelter  of  the  seed-tree  crown 
cover,  by  means  of  a  series  of  cuttings  throughout  the  stand, 
aimed  to  admit  a  gradually  increasing  supply  of  light  to  the 
seedlings. 

The  principle  of  the  method  lies  in  the  protection  (shelter) 
which  the  seed  trees  (nurse  trees)  afford  the  young  growth 
during  its  youth.  G.,  Schirmschlagbetrieb  (Gayer  &  Lorey) 
in  part  Femelschlagbetrieb  (Lorey)  F.,  Regime  de  la  futaie 
reguliere.  The  number  and  severity  of  the  cuttings  and  hence 
the  duration  of  the  entire  removal  period,  depends  upon  the 
rate  of  establishment  and  upon  the  early  growth  of  the  repro- 
duction. In  theory  the  series  of  cuttings  is  di\dded  into  four 
parts  as  follows : 

Preparatory  cuttings  fit  the  stand  for  its  reproduction  by  the 
removal  of  dead,  dying,  or  defective  trees  and  prepare  the 
ground  for  the  germination  of  seeds.  A  stand  in  which  one 
or  more  preparatory  cuttings  have  been  made  is  in  the  prepara- 
tory   stage.     G.,  Vorbereitungschlag.     F.,   coupe  preparatoire. 

Seed  cuttings  encourage  seed  production  by  the  further 
opening  of  the  stand,  and  admit  light  in  quantity  favorable 
for  the  de\'elopment  of  young  growth.  A  stand  in  which  one 
or  more  seed  cuttings  have  been  made  is  in  the  seeding  stage. 
G.,  Besamungsschlag.     F.,  coupe  d'ensemencement. 

Removal  cuttings  gradually  remove  the  mature  stand  which 
would  otherwise  retard  the  development  of  the  young  trees. 


58  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

A  stand  in  which  one  or  more  removal  cuttings  have  been 
made  is  in  the  removal  stage.  G.,  Lichtschlag.  F.,  coupe 
claire. 

The  final  cutting  is  the  last  of  the  removal  cuttings,  in  which 
all  of  the  old  stand  still  remaining  is  cut.  G.,  Abtriebsschlag, 
Endhieb.  F.,  coupe  definitive.  In  practice  a  two-cut  shelter- 
wood  method  has  been  used,  including  the  seed-cutting  and 
final-cutting  stages.  The  shelterwood  method  may  be  applied 
to  a  stand  in  narrow  strips,  from  the  leeward  side,  at  such  inter- 
vals that  reproduction  cuttings  are  generally  going  on  in  three 
strips  at  one  time,  one  strip  being  in  the  removal  stage,  one  in 
the  seeding  stage,  and  one  in  the  preparatory  stage.  This 
manner  of  appHcation  is  termed  shelterwood  strip  method. 

Another  modification  of  the  shelterwood  method  of  repro- 
duction is  that  in  which  groups  of  valuable  advance  growth, 
if  present,  form  the  starting  points  for  the  cutting  which  radiates 
from  these  centres.  Such  an  application  is  termed  shelter- 
wood  group  method. 

The  determination  of  the  silvicultural  method  to  be  prac- 
tised will  require  the  best  judgment  and  experience  of  the  forest 
organizer.  Complete  forest  descriptions  and  frequent  observa- 
tions within  the  forest  will  assist  greatly  in  determining  the 
best  silvicultural  system  to  pursue.* 

The  Rotation 

By  rotation  is  meant  the  predetermined  time  period  during 
which  it  is  intended  to  cut  over  a  working  group;  the  predeter- 
mined, approximate  felling  age  of  stands.  Rotation  refers  to 
the  forest  as  a  whole  and  is  expressed  not  by  a  definite  year, 
but  a  period  of  ten  to  twenty  years;  Jelling  age  refers  to  a  stand 
and  a  definite  year. 

Rotations  are  determined  by   (i)   technical,   (2)   economic, 

*  It  does  not  seem  expedient  to  enter  into  a  discussion  of  the  specific  applica- 
tion of  various  silvicultural  methods.  Such  a  discussion  will  be  found  in  Roth: 
"  Forest  Regulation,"  pp.  90-107,  in  books  on  silviculture  and  in  Recknagel 
and  Bentley:   "  Forest  Management,"  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1917. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  59 

and  (3)  financial  considerations,  silvicultural  considerations 
exercising  a  limiting  influence. 

Technical  Rotations. — These  attempt  to  produce  the  max- 
imum amount  of  material  suitable  for  a  certain  purpose,  such 
as  railroad  ties,  mine  timbers,  saw  logs  of  given  size  and  the 
like. 

For  example,  railroad  ties  can  not  be  made  from  trees  less 
than  10  inches  in  diameter  breast  high.  If,  therefore,  an  owner 
in  southern  Connecticut  desired  to  grow  chestnut  sprouts 
for  this  purpose  it  would  require  fifty  *  years  for  the  average 
tree  to  reach  lo  inches  d.b.h.  on  the  best  sites.  At  this  age  f 
there  would  be  435  standard  ties  produced  per  acre  besides  35 
cords  of  cordwood. 

Another  example  may  be  taken  from  the  Pacific  Coast. 
To  produce  suitable  sawtimber  from  Douglas  fir,  the  tree  should 
be  at  least  16  inches  d.b.h.  If,  therefore,  an  owner  in  western 
Washington  desired  to  grow  Douglas  fir  for  this  purpose  it 
would  require  %  seventy  years  for  the  average  tree  to  reach  16 
inches  d.b.h.  on  the  best  sites.  At  this  age  §  there  would 
be  56,500  feet,  board  measure,  produced  per  acre. 

This  rotation  is  the  one  most  commonly  used  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  easily  applied  and,  if  conservatively  chosen,  will 
give  satisfactory  results.  In  this,  as  in  all  rotations,  the  sil- 
vicultural considerations  exercise  a  hmiting  influence.  For 
example,  where  reproduction  is  by  natural  methods,  such  as  the 
shelterwood  method,  some  of  the  trees  will  have  to  be  left  beyond 
the  rotation  age  in  order  that  the  seed  from  them  may  restock 
the  area  cut.  This  space  of  time  required  for  the  renewal  of 
a  stand  constitutes  the  reproduction  period  and  must  be  added 
to  the  rotation  age. 

Economic  Rotations. — These   attempt   to   secure  either  the 

*  According  to  Table  17  of  Bui.  96,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture, 
"  Second  Growth  Hardwoods  in  Connecticut." 
t  Table  28,  ibid. 

I  Table  i,  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  XII,  p.  442. 
§Ibid. 


60 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


maximum  average  volume  production,  or  the  maximum  average 
value  production. 

The  higher  the  average  yearly  production  of  a  piece  of 
woodland,  the  greater,  of  course,  will  be  its  continuous  produc- 
ing value  if  cut  over  repeatedly.  For  example,  in  the  second- 
growth  hardwoods  in  Connecticut  *  the  average  annual  growth 
in  cubic  feet  and  cords  culminates  as  follows: 


Chestnut  type:  best  sites  and  medium  sites 35  years 

Chestnut  type:  poorest  sites 40 

Oak-chestnut  type:  best  sites  and  medium  sites 30     " 

Oak-chestnut  type:  poorest  sites 35     " 

Oak  type:  best  sites  and  medium  sites 35     " 

Oak  type:  poorest  sites 40 

These  lengths  of  rotation  are  so  nearly  similar  that  it  is  safe 
to  place  the  cordwood  rotation  for  second-gi'owth  hardwood 
stands  at  from  thirty  to  forty  years.  To  illustrate  how  silvi- 
culture enters  in  as  a  limiting  factor,  the  rotation  for  stands  con- 
taining much  red,  black,  or  scarlet  oak  should  be  thirty  or 
even  twenty-five  years  in  order  to  secure  successful  sprout 
reproduction  of  these  species. 

Another  example  of  the  economic  rotation  may  be  taken 
from  Douglas  fir  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  According  to  published 
tables  t  the  economic  rotation  for  cubic  volumes  and  board- 
foot  volumes  for  best,  medium  and  poor  sites,  in  western 
Washington  and  Oregon  is  as  follows: 


Cubic 

Volume. 

Board-Foot  Volume. 

Site  Quality. 

Rotation 
Years. 

Yield  per 
Acre,  Cu.ft. 

Rotation 
Years. 

Yield  per 
Acre.  Bd.ft. 

Best 

Medium                            .      ... 

52 
55 
52 

9,050 
8,110 
5,650 

::: 

115 

100,000 
74,000 

Poor                                

58,000 

*  Bui.  96,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.  Tables  30,  32,  and  S3' 
t  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XII,  p.  447,  table  6. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  61 

From  this,  a  rotation  of  fifty  to  fifty-five  years  could  safely 
be  chosen  for  maximum  production  in  cubic  contents  and 
of  no  to  115  years  for  maximum  production  in  board-foot 
contents. 

Unlike  the  technical  rotation,  this  rotation  finds  but  little 
application  to-day,  since  it  usually  takes  quantity  of  material 
as  the  goal.  It  is  satisfactory  from  the  silvicultural  stand- 
point hence  it  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as  a  "  silvicultural 
rotation." 

Financial  Rotations. — These  introduce  considerations  of  cost 
and  attempt  to  secure  either  the  maximum  forest  rent  or  max- 
imum soil  rent. 

The  doctrine  of  forest  rent  considers  the  soil  and  forest 
jointly  as  capital  and  chooses  that  rotation  which,  in  the  form 
of  a  normal  forest,  would  produce  the  maximum  net  annual 
income  after  subtracting  the  annual  cash  expenses.  The  rota- 
tion age  which  yields  this  maximum  income  for  the  entire  forest 
coincides  with  the  year  of  maximum  mean  annual  net  income 
from  an  even-aged  crop  of  timber,  found  by  dividing  total  gross 
income,  minus  actual  cash  expenses,  by  number  of  years  in  the 
rotation. 

In  other  words  it  is  "  a  mere  bookkeeper's  balance  of  income 
and  outgo,  under  annual  management,  without  consideration 
of  time  of  income  or  outgo,  forest  and  soil  representing  the  capital 
producing  the  rent  as  an  annual  receipt,  like  a  house  and  lot 
producing  the  annual  rent."  * 

The  Norway  spruce  will  serve  as  an  example  of  financial 
rotation  based  on  forest  rent.  According  to  European  tables 
(Endres,  after  Schwappach)  the  gross  income,  expenses  and  net 
income  per  acre  for  different  decades  is  as  follows  for  medium 
sites.f 


*  From  letter  by  Dr.  B.  E.  Fernow  to  the  author  under  date  of  February  23, 

1914. 

t  Taken  from  "  Forest  Valuation,"  Roth,  Ann  Arbor,  Mich.,  1916. 


62 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


Gross 
Income 
per  Acre. 


Expenses  per  Acre. 


Initial 
(Planting). 


Current 
(at  $0.90 
per  Year). 


Total 
Expense. 


Net  Income  per  Acre. 


30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100, 

no, 

120, 


$  87 
210 
402 
654 
923 
1212 
1474 
1710 
1919 
2087 


$12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 
12 


$27 
36 
45 
54 
63 
72 
81 
90 
Q9 

io3 


$  39 

48 

57 

66 

75 

84 

93 

102 

III 

120 


$   48 

163 

354 

588 

848 

1 1 29 

1382 

1609 

1808 

1967 


$1.60 
4.00 
6.90 
9.80 

12.  10 
14.10 
15-30 
16.00 
16.40 
16.30 


From  this  table  it  is  evident  that  the  highest  net  income 
occurs  at  no  years  and  this,  accordingly,  would  be  the  financial 
rotation  chosen  on  the  basis  oi  forest  rent. 

The  doctrine  of  soil  rent  considers  the  soil  as  a  capital  and 
the  value  of  the  growing  timber  as  the  interest  on  that  capital. 
Such  interest  is  compounded  and  is  calculated  at  a  predeter- 
mined rate.  The  interest  so  calculated  is  considered  as  rent 
("  soil  rent  ")  and  the  rotation  chosen  which  yields  the  highest 
soil  rent  per  acre. 

In  other  words  it  ''  considers  the  soil  alone  as  capital,  the 
forest  stand  representing  the  accumulated  interest  on  that 
capital.  It  is,  therefore,  based  on  intermittent  returns  and 
hence  requires  a  compound  interest  calculation:  it  is  a  finan- 
cier's balance  as  compared  with  a  bookkeeper's  balance."  * 

A  good  example  of  financial  rotation  based  on  soil  rent  is 
found  in  European  tables.  The  following  figures  are  taken 
from  Endres'  "  Valuation "  and  Schwappach's  "  Tables  of 
Growth."  Assuming  an  interest  rate  of  3  per  cent  compounded, 
the  income  value  per  acre  for  different  decades  and  difTerent 
species  is  as  follows :  f 


*  Letter  from  Dr.  Fernow. 

t  Taken  from  "  Forest  Valuation,"  Roth,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan,  1916. 


THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


63 


Norway  Spruce. 


Best      Medium      Poor 
Sites.         Sites.        Sites. 


Best        Poor 
Sites.        Sites. 


Scotch  Pine. 


Best         Poor 
Sites.       Sites. 


Best 
Sites. 


Dollars  per  Acre. 


Poor 
Sites. 


30 
40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 
100 
no 


139 

159 
166 
161 
151 
138 
126 


10 

-14 

—  10 

-30 

43 

-  3 

4 

47 

13 

67 

-  5 

59 

7 

25 

77 

38 

134 

25 

66 

13 

32 

98 

53 

156 

38 

67 

13 

35 

I  OS 

59 

156 

44 

64 

13 

35 

105 

59 

145 

44 

59 

10 

34 

99 

56 

130 

41 

53 

8 

31 

91 

51 

ii4« 

36 

48 

5 

27 

83 

46 

99 

30 

43 

4 

24 

75 

41 

86 

25 

40 

^ 

21 

From  this  table  it  is  evident  that  for  Norway  spruce,  medium 
sites,  the  financial  rotation  chosen  on  the  basis  of  soil  rent 
would  be  70  or  80  years;  for  white  fir  70  years;  for  Scotch 
pine  60  years;   and  for  beech  60  or  70  years. 

The  financial  rotation  will  undoubtedly  be  used  more  and 
more  in  the  future  especially  as  the  necessary  data  become 
available.  "  In  any  ordinary  forest  business  the  aim  is  to 
keep  the  forest  and  land  in  best  possible  condition  and  at  the 
same  time  make  the  largest  income.  Assuming  the  silvi- 
cultural  conditions  cared  for,  the  best  rotation  is  the  one  fur- 
nishing the  best  income  for  the  longest  time.  There  are  two 
distinct  ways  of  judging  this  income. 

"  (i)  .  .  .  the  largest  net  income  per  acre  of  established 
forest."  (Forest  rent.) 

*'  (2)  .  .  .  the  largest  per  cent  on  the  money  invested  in 
the  forest."     (Soil  rent.)  * 

The  kind  of  rotation  to  adopt  depends  on  matters  of  poHcy, 
to  wit: 

1.  Conditions  of  ownership,  wishes  and  purpose  of  owner. 

2.  The  market  and  logging  conditions. 


Roth:  "Forest  Valuation,"  p.  85. 


64  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

3.  The  site. 

4.  The  character  of  the  stand. 

1.  The  state  can  afford  a  higher  rotation  than  can  the 
private  owner;  furthermore,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to  grow 
timber  not  only  for  profit,  but  to  supply  future  demand,  espe- 
cially in  sizes  requiring  long  rotations. 

2.  The  market  conditions  influence  the  rotation,  inasmuch 
as  good  markets  and  easy  accessibility  permit  shorter  rotations, 
whereas  forests  further  from  market  and  more  difficult  of  access 
necessitate  a  longer  rotation  to  make  logging  at  all  profitable. 
The  decreasing  area  of  virgin  forest  and  the  rapidly  increasing 
population  justify  the  consideration  of  future  as  well  as  present 
market  conditions.  It  is  reasonable  to  expect  that  the  price  of 
larger  timber  will  increase  proportionately  more  than  that  of 
smaller  sizes,  and  hence  it  may  be  good  economy,  in  view  of 
future  market  prices,  to  adopt  a  longer  rotation  and  plan  to 
grow  larger  sizes  of  timber  than  present  market  prices  would 
warrant. 

3.  The  more  the  site  is  adapted  to  a  certain  species,  the  longer 
can  the  rotation  be.  Conversely  the  more  rapid  growth  on  good 
sites  will  often  tend  to  shorten  the  rotation. 

4.  The  character  of  the  stands  influences  the  rotation  in 
respect  to  their  quality  and  species.  The  better  the  quality  of 
the  stand,  the  longer  can  the  rotation  be;  the  less  thrifty  stands 
will  often  have  to  be  cut  before  the  regular  rotation  age.  As 
Meinecke  says:  *  "  The  time  at  which  a  tree  or  a  stand  is  to  be 
cut  may  range  from  a  comparatively  low  age  to  the  age  of 
maximum  production  of  lumber,  according  to  the  special  needs 
the  forester  has  in  view ;  but  the  upper  limit  of  this  range  should 
not  lie  beyond  the  period  at  which  the  gain  from  the  increment 
is  offset  by  loss  from  decay,  irrespective  of  the  ideal  amount 
of  timber  a  sound  tree  or  stand  might  produce  under  favorable 
conditions  .  .  .  the  age  of  dechne  forms   the  basis  for  what 

*  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agri.,  Bulletin  No.  275  "  Forest  Pathology  in  Forest  Regula- 
tion," Contribution  from  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry.  Professional  paper  by 
E.  P.  Meinecke.     Reviewed  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Vol.  XI,  No.  2. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  65 

might  be  termed  the  '  pathological  rotation.'  "  The  species  in 
mixed  stands  can  usually  be  worked  on  the  same  rotation  unless 
they  mature  at  different  ages  or  are  markedly  different  in 
value,  e.g.,  a  mixed  forest  of  Engelmann  spruce  and  white  fir 
{A.  concolor)  will  often  require  a  higher  rotation  for  the  spruce 
than  for  the  fir;  because  the  fir  deteriorates  at  an  earlier  age 
and  becomes  almost  valueless  at  a  time  when  the  spruce  is  just 
fully  matured. 

Where  the  species  are  not  intermingled  but  form  pure  groups 
or  stands  in  the  same  working  group,  the  rotation  is  determined 
separately  for  each  species  comprising  more  than  one-third  of 
the  total  volume,  and  the  results  are  then  averaged. 

Note. — In  connection  with  rotations  involving  financial  calculations,  see  chap- 
ter in  Roth:  "  Forest  Valuation,"  on  "  Relation  of  Capital  and  Income  in 
Forestry,"  pp.  73-82;  also,  Chapter  VIII,  pp.  loo-ng  in  Chapman:  "Forest 
Valuation." 


CHAPTER  II 

REGULATION  OF  CUT  * 

DEFINITION 

Regulation  of  the  cut  is  the  fixation,  in  advance,  of  the 
annual  or  periodic  cut,  which,  in  the  normal  forest,  would  be 
equivalent  to  the  annual  or  periodic  increment.  The  regulation 
of  cut  is  necessarily  preceded  by  a  determination  of  the  amount 
to  be  cut  and  by  the  location  of  the  areas  to  be  cut  over. 

The  space  of  years  for  which  the  cut  is  regulated  depends 
on  the  frequency  of  accurate  revisions  of  the  working  plan. 
Ten  years  is  the  customary  minimum  period  for  which  the  cut 
is  regulated ;  at  the  end  of  that  time  j  the  working  plan  is 
revised  and  the  cut  regulated  for  the  following  decade.  Where 
period  methods  (see  below)  are  used,  the  cut  is  regulated  in 
detail  for  the  first  period— twenty  years  in  advance  J — or  even 
for  the  first  two  periods^forty  years  in  advance  § — in  detail 
for  the  first  period  of  twenty  years  and  roughly  for  the  second 
period.  Despite  this  regulation,  so  far  in  advance,  exhaustive 
revisions  are  undertaken  at  the  end  of  each  decade.  Frequent 
revisions  are  an  absolute  essential,  and  the  regulation  of  cut 
for  many  years  in  advance,  or  even  for  the  whole  rotation,  is 
little  better  than  a  useless  play. 

*  Yield  in  the  sense  of  tlie  allowable  cut  from  a  forest  has  been  abandoned, 
in  the  terminology  of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  in  order  to  prevent 
ambiguity.  The  terminology  defines  yield  as  "  the  timber  or  wood  volume 
that  is  (actually)  or  can  be  (normally)  produced  by  a  stand  of  a  given  composi- 
tion at  a  given  age  under  given  site,  conditions  and  treatment — the  actual,  or 
normal  product  of  the  stand." 

t  In  Saxony  the  revision  is  undertaken  every  five  years;  the  plan  is  for  ten 
years. 

t  Prussia.        §  Austria. 

66 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  67 

The  allowed  cut  is  fixed:  First,  in  respect  to  how  much 
can  be  cut,  i.e.,  the  determination  of  cut;  second,  in  respect 
to  where  it  is  to  be  cut,  i.e.,  the  distribution  of  cut.  This  chap- 
ter is  accordingly  divided  into  sections  to  correspond  with 
these  two  divisions  of  the  subject  and  a  third  to  treat  special 
cases  of  regulation. 

SECTION  ONE 

DETERMINATION  OF  CUT 

The  determination  of  the  cut  is  either  by  area,  by  volume, 
or  by  both.  In  this  determination  the  bases  are  the  foundations 
of  working  plans  already  considered  namely: 

1.  Increment. 

2.  Growing  stock  and  distribution  of  the  age  classes. 

3.  Object  of  management. 

4.  Silvicultural  method  of  management. 

5.  Rotation. 

Of  these,  increment  is  the  most  important,  i.e.,  the  increment 
as  it  actually  is.*  No  sustained  yield  is  possible  which  disre- 
gards the  increment. 

According  as  the  determination  of  cut  is  to  be  by  area, 
by  volume,  or  by  both,  the  following  methods  have  been  evolved: 

1.  A.  By  area. 

B.  By   volume. 

I.     Based  solely  on  growing  stock. 

2.  I.  Von  Mantel's  method. 

3.  2.  Methode  de  Masson. 

II.     Based  solely  on  increment. 

4.  I.  By  current  annual  increment  (Swiss  method). 


*  "  The  main  task  for  the  regulation  of  cut,  here  as  well  as  abroad,  is  doubt- 
less the  determination  of  the  annual  or  periodic  increment — the  increment  as  it 
actually  is.  This  is  under  all  circumstances  the  most  important  basis  and  stand- 
ard of  comparison  for  the  cut." — Prof.  Dr.  Martin,  Tharandt,  in  letter  to  the 
author,  January  21,  191 2. 


68 


THE  THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


lO. 
II. 
12. 


la- 


in.   Based  on  growing  stock  and  increment 

1.  Austrian  formula  (Kameraltaxe) . 

2.  Karl's  method. 

3.  Hundeshagen's  method. 

4.  Breymann's  method. 

5.  Heyer's  method. 

IV.     Based  on  diameter  classes. 

1.  French  method  (Methode  de  1883). 

2.  Indian  method. 

3.  Diameter  class  method  (Hufnagl). 

C.  By  area  and  volume. 
I.     For  entire  forest. 

I.  Methode  du  Controle  (Gurnaud). 


"  Formula 
Methods." 


II.     Based  on  age  classes. 

14.  I.  Direct  method  (Hufnagl). 

15.  2.  Hufnagl's  method. 

16.  3.  The  stand  method    (Judeich's 

schaft  "). 


Bestandswirt- 


17. 


18. 


III.     Based  on  periods  {"  Fachwerks  Methoden  ")• 
.  Area-period  method  ("  Flachenfachwerk  "). 
.  Volume-period  method  ("  Massenfachwerk  "). 
.  Area-and- volume    period    method     ("  Kombi- 

niertes  Fachwerk  "). 
.  American  method  (Chapman). 


These  eighteen  methods  of  determining  the  cut  will  be 
considered  seriatim;  for  each  will  be  given  (a)  the  description 
of  the  method,  (b)  an  example  of  its  working,  and  (c)  an  estimate 
of  its  value  and  application,  with  especial  regard  to  American 
conditions.  The  following  symbols  are  used:  F  =  volume, 
r  =  rotation,  A  =  area,  a  =  age,  M.  =  thousand  feet  board  measure, 
cds  =  cords,  c.a.i.=  current  annual  increment,  m.a.i.  =mea,n 
annual  increment. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  69 

1.  BY  AREA. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — The  forest  or  main  divisions 
thereof  (working  groups,  blocks)  is  divided  into  a  number  of 
cutting  areas — annual  or  periodic^corresponding  to  the  rotation 
age.  These  annual  or  periodic  cutting  areas  are  marked  on  the 
ground;  annually  or  periodically,  a  cutting  area  is  logged.  The 
size  of  the  cutting  areas  is  either  exactly  equal  or  else  is  equal 
to  the  reduced  area  corresponding  to  the  varying  site  qualities. 
In  order  to  give  more  accurate  expression  to  the  distribution  of 
the  age  classes,  Hufnagl  has  suggested  that  each  annual  cutting 

area    be    multiphed    by    the    factor:    ,    ,.   ,     — —. —     or    - 

half  the  rotation       _  r 

2 

thus  securing  the  maximum  sustained  annual  cutting  area. 

In  selection  forest,  i.e.,  a  forest  through  all  parts  of  which 
many  different  age  classes  are  represented,  the  individual 
area  is  cut  over  several  times  during  the  rotation,  the  interval 
between  cuts  on  the  same  area  being  the  cutting  cycle  (cc). 
Hence  in  forests  managed  under  the  selection  method,  the  annual 

cut  = X  amount   to   be   removed  per  acre    under   the 

cc 

selection  cutting. 

(b)  Example: — I.  Area  not  reduced.  II.  Area  reduced. 
III.  Hufnagl  variation. 

I.  A  block  contains  10,000  acres.     It  is  to  be  managed  on  a 

A 

rotation  of  60  years.     The  annual  cutting  area  =  — =  166.7  acres. 

If  the  cutting  period  is  twenty  years,  then  the  periodic  cutting 
area  will  be  166.7X20  =  3334  acres. 

II.  By  REDUCED  area:  Each  site  quahty  produces  for  a  fully 
stocked  stand  a  varying  volume  at  the  rotation  age.  These 
volumes  can  either  be  secured  empirically  or  by  means  of 
normal  yield  tables.  E.g.,  for  white  pine  it  has  been  deter- 
mined *    that    the  maximum    yield   (Site  1)   ^or  a  sixty-yeai 

*  Table  6,  Bulletin  13,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  new  series,  "  White  Pine  under 
Forest  Management." 


70  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

rotation  is  60,200  board  feet  per  acre,  the  minimum  (Site  III) 
33,600  board  feet  per  acre. 

Per  acre 

Site  quality  I < . . .  60,200  board  feet 

II 46,900         " 

in 33.600 

On  the  basis  of  site  quaHty  I  the  per  cents  of  the  other  site 
qualities  would  be : 

Site  quahty  I i .  00 

II 78 

HI 56 

These  are  the  factors  of  reduction  to  the  common  site  quality 

(I). 

If,  in  the  above  instance,  the  actual  area  of  10,000  acres  was 
composed  equally  of  each  site  quaHty  (I  to  III),  then  the 
reduced  area  would  be : 

Site  quahty  I,  original  3,334  acres,  reduced  3,334  acres. 
Site  quaHty  II,  original  t,,S33  acres,  reduced  2,600  acres. 
Site  quaHty  III,  original  3,333  acres,  reduced  1,866  acres. 

Total,   10,000  acres,  reduced  7,800  acres. 

The  annual  or  the  periodic  cutting  area  is,  therefore,  varied 

according  to  the  site  quaHty  or  qualities  in  the  area  allotted. 

„        ,,  ,       ..•  reduced  area     7800 

E.g.,  the  annual  cuttmg  area  = -. =  -^ — =130  acres. 

^  '  ^  rotation  60         ^ 

Similarly  the  periodic  cutting  area  =130X20  =  2600  acres.     If 

these  2600  acres  were  all  to  be  distributed  among  site  quaHty 

II  it  would  actually  require: 

2600X1.28  =  3328  acres; 
for,  from  the  above  table  of  percentages,  it  requires: 

1.28  acres  of  site  quaHty    II  to  equal  i  acre  of  site  quaHty  I. 
1.79  acres  of  site  quality  III  to  equal  i  acre  of  site  quaHty  I. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


71 


III.  HuFNAGL  VARIATION:    Hufnagl  multiplies  the  annual 

u    4.U    average  age 
cutting  area  by  the — ^-. 


For  example,  if  the  stand  shows  the  following  distribution 
of  the  age  classes: 


Total  Area 
acres 

I 

1-20  yrs. 

II 

21-40  yrs. 

III 
41-60  yrs. 

6 

IV 
-80  yrs. 

V 
81  and  over 

Blanks 
unst'k'd 

2160 

510 

496 

46s 

443 

214 

32 

then  the  average  age  would  be: 

32X  0=        0 

510X10=    5,100 
496X30=14,880 
465X50=23,250 
443X70  =  31,010 
214X90=19,260 

Total,  2160  93,500 

93,500^2160  =  43  years  =  the  average  age. 

Area  =2160  acres. 

Rotation  =     80  years. 

Average  age  =     43  years. 

.*.  the  annual  cutting  area  =  — - — X—  =  29  acres. 
80       40 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — The  area  method  is  the  oldest 
of  regulation,  dating  from  the  sixteenth  century.  It  enables 
the  transition  from  mere  exploitation  to  a  conservative  manage- 
ment. 

Its  great  advantage  is  simplicity. 

Its  great  disadvantages  are: 

I.  The  rotation  is  assumed  as  a  fixed  value,  whereas  in 
reality  it  is  a  mere  approximation  and  varies  with  the  interior 
(management,  accidents,  etc.)  and  exterior  (markets,  desires  of 
owner)  changes  to  which  every  forest  is  subjected. 


72  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

2.  The  method  is  too  strait-laced  to  permit  the  free 
play  necessary  for  the  best  silviculture,  e.g.,  natural  reproduc- 
tion. 

It  is,  therefore,  restricted  in  its  direct  application  to  forests 
with  fairly  uniform  conditions,  i.e.,  to  coppice,  coppice  with 
standards,  and  well-developed  selection  forests.  As  an  "  area 
check  "  on  volumetric  determinations,  however,  it  finds  a  wide 
use.     (See  Method  No.  14  for  examples.) 

2.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  SOLELY  ON  GROWING  STOCK.     VON 
MANTEL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This  is  the  simplest  of  the 
"  formula  methods."  Indeed  it  is  hardly  to  be  ranked  with 
them  except  in  having  the  same  underlying  principle,  namely, 
that  the  actual  cut  must  bear  the  same  relation  to  the  actual 
growing  stock  as  the  normal  cut  (or,  what  is  the  same,  the  normal 
increment)  bears  to  the  normal  growing  stock. 

Von  Mantel  considers  that  the  growing  stock  =  the  real  incre- 
ment (mean  annual)  multiplied  by  half  of  the  rotation  (**X-| 

for  under  normal  conditions  the  volume  present  (growing  stock) 
in  any  one  year  equals  one-half  of  the  total  volume  produced 
during  the  entire  rotation.  This  is  shown  diagrammatically 
on  the  next  page.  Since  the  volume  present  (growing  stock) 
need  be  but  one-half  the  total  volume  produced,  therefore 
the  annual  cut  =  volume  present -^  by  half  the  number  of  years 
in  the  rotation,  or,  as  Von  Mantel  puts  it: 

Y  (annual  cut)  =  — . 
r 


(b)  Example. — A  forest  contains  6810  M.  feet  board  measure 

of  spruce  and  fir  to  be  managed  on  a  160-year  rotation.     The 

,       ,     V     6,810     6,810     o  r    ^    u       J 

annual  cut  =  — = =  — =  85,125  feet,  board  measure. 

£       160        80         ^'     ^ 

2         2 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


73 


(c)  Value  and  Application.— The  greatest  advantage  of  Von 
Mantel's  formula  is  its  utter  simplicity;  for  it  requires  only 
the  total  volume  and  the  rotation.  It  is  thereby  adapted  to  the 
most  meagre  data. 

Its  disadvantages  are:  i.  That  it  assumes  a  definite  rotation 
which  is  altogether  impossible  in  view  of  the  disturbing  emer- 


15 


25 


35 


45 


55 


65 


75 


85 


95 


gencies  which  always  arise.  2.  While  it  does  automatically 
reduce  any  surplus  or  deficit  in  the  growing  stock,  it  requires 
unduly  long  to  do  so.  The  annual  cut  is  apt  to  be  over- 
conservative. 

Its  use  is,  therefore,  restricted  to  determining  the  cut  pro- 
visionally before  detailed  data  can  be  obtained,  and  as  a  check 
on  the  results  obtained  by  other  methods. 


74  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 


3.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED   SOLELY  ON  GROWING  STOCK.     ME- 
THODE  DE  MASSON. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Masson's  formula  closely  ap- 
proximates that  of  Von  Mantel,  but  is  claimed  by  the  French 
to  have  been  developed  independently,  although  based  on  the 
same  principles.     The  formula  is: 

2V 
Annual  cut  =  — . 
r 

(b)  Example. — ^A  forest  contains  6810  M.  feet  board  measure 
of  spruce  and  fir  to  be  managed  on  a  160-year  rotation.    The 

annual  cut= —  =  -^ —  =  85,125  feet,  board  measure. 
r         160 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Precisely  as  in  Von  Mantel's 
method  (No.  2). 

I     4.  BY   VOLUME.— BASED    SOLELY    ON   INCREMENT.     BY    CUR- 
RENT ANNUAL  INCREMENT  (SWISS  METHOD). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This  method  is  described  in 
an  anonymous  article  on  Selection  Forest  Management  in  the 
Swiss  Forestry  Periodical  for  1913,*  briefed  in  Forestry 
Quarterly,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  2,  pp.  260-262,  as  follows: 

"  Divide  the  volume  of  the  oldest  size  classes  by  the  annual 
increment  of  the  entire  stand.  This  will  give  the  number  of 
years  during  which  the  volume  of  the  oldest  size  classes  must 
last.  If  this  be  forty-five  (45)  years,  then  the  cut  for  the  next 
decade  would  be  from  one-fifth  to  one-quarter  of  the  volume 
of  the  largest  size  classes." 

Expressed  mathematically : 

Let  X  =  the  volume  of  the  size  classes  below  the  diameter 
limit; 
Xi  =  the  current  annual  increment  thereon; 

* "  Die  Betriebsordnung  im  Plenterwald,"  Schweizerische  Zeitschrift  fiir 
Forstwesen,  August,  Sept.,  Oct.,  Nov.,  1913,  pp.  234-238,  265-272,  307-313,  and 
339-346. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  75 

F  =  the  volume  of  the  size  classes  above  the  diameter 
limit    but    within    a    satisfactory  current  annual 
increment; 
Yi  =  the  current  annual  increment  thereon; 
Z  =  the  volume  of  the  size  classes  beyond  a  satisfactory 
current  annual  increment — that  is  overmature  tim- 
ber— surplus  growing  stock; 
Zi  =  the  current  annual  increment  thereon; 
CC  =  the  cutting  cycle. 


Then  CC 

and  annual  cut 


Xi-^Yi+Zi 

Y+Z 
CC  ' 


This  is  the  strict  interpretation  of  the  method  as  described, 
but  since  Z  is  surplus  growing  stock  it  should  play  no  part  in 
determining  CC,  neither  should  the  increment  thereon  {Zi). 

Then  CC- 

and  annual  cut 


Xi+Yi 
Y+Z 


CC  ' 

The  current  annual  increment  can  be  easily  determined  by 
Pressler's  or  by  Schneider's  formulae.  Where  reliable  diameter 
growth  figures  are  available,  these  can  be  used  as  well  as  incre- 
ment borings  or  stump  analyses,  since  what  is  wanted  is  the 
number  of  years  required  to  grow  from  i  inch  class  to  the  next. 

The  chief  data  required  are  an  exact  determination  of  the 
current  annual  increment  and  stand  and  stock  tables.  The 
diameter-class  distribution  must  approach  the  normal  relation. 
It  is  a  further  essential  of  this  method  that  the  increment  and 
growing  stock  be  redetermined,  by  identical  means,  at  frequent 
regular  intervals  of  not  to  exceed  ten  years.  If  the  growing 
stock  then  shows  an  unintentional  diminution,  the  cut  was 
set  at  too  high  a  figure;    if,  conversely,  the  growing  stock,  at 


76 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


the  time  of  revision,  shows  an  unintentional  increase,  the  cut 
was  set  too  low. 

(b)  Example. — It  is  desired  to  determine  the  cut  of  hemlock 
in  the  slope  type  of  Catskill  forest  illustrated  by  the  stand 
and  stock  tables  quoted  above  from  Bulletin  ii  of  the  N.  Y. 
State  Conservation  Commission.*  A  breast-high  diameter 
limit  of  12  inches  is  to  be  observed  which,  according  to  U.  S. 
Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bulletin  152,  new  series,  "The  Eastern 
Hemlock,"  table  10,  corresponds  to  a  rotation  of  160  years. 
The  current  annual  increment  per  cent  has  been  determined 
from  increment  borings  and  Pressler's  formula.  The  com- 
plete data  are  as  follows: 


D.  B.  H..  Inches. 


A.  I..  Per  Cent 
(Pressler). 


Volume  on  Average 
Acre  (Stock  Table). 


C.  A.  I.  per  Acre. 


7 
8 
9 
10 
II 
12 

13 
14 
IS 
16 
17 
18 

19 

20 
21 


Per  Cent. 
7.19 

430 
4.00 
2.69 
2.68 

2.  26 


Board  Feet. 
6. J 
6.4 


•97 
.89 


17.98 
24.09 
28.83 

26.68 
21.45 
15-48 
18.36 
22.23 
20.51 
13.60 

7.78 
17.56 


>    X 


(Cont.  in  st'k  table) 
See  p,  48, 


Total  5. 478 


Board  Feet. 
.488 
!76 
■487 
.484 
•645 
•652 


555 
376 
240 
310 
329 
254 
150 


076 
156 


To  summarize: 

Y 
Z 

Y+Z- 


^138.31  board  feet  per  acre 
^168.48 
306.79 


*  Bulletin  11,  "  Poorest  Survey  of  a  Parcel  of  State  Land,"  Albany,  N.  Y.,  1915, 
Tables  4  and  5. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  77 

Xi  =  s.o^2  board  feet  per  acre 
Yi=  2. 214 
Zi=    .232 


X/+ 7^4-^^  =  5.478 

Then  CC=     .     j^. —    =3°  •79  =  g6  years,  and  the  annual  cut 
Xt-]-Yz-\-Zt     5.478 

= ^- — ^  =  5.478  board  feet  per  acre,  or,  for  the    1730 

CC  56 

acres  in  this  type,  =9477  board  feet  of  hemlock.* 

Eliminating  Z  and  Zi  in  figuring  CC: 

CC  = =  •^  '3    =26  years,  and  the  annual  cut    =    ^^ 

Xt-}-Yt     5.246  CC 

=^ — ^  =  11.797  board  feet  per  acre,  or  for  the  1730  acres  in 
26 

this  type  =20,409  board  feet  of  hemlock. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method  is  well  adapted  to 

finding  the  allowed  annual  cut  in  a  selection  forest.     It  should 

be  used,  however,  in  conjunction  with  some  other  methods, 

such  as  Method  12,  Var.  II,  Method  2,  and  the  area  check  as 

indicated  for  selection  forest  in  Method  i. 


*  By  Von  Mantel's  method,  the  cut  of  hemlock  figures  out  9965  board  feet. 
The  cut  by  the  Swiss  method  for  the  other  species  in  the  stock  table  is  as  follows: 
Beech,  above  16  inches  d.b.h.  =  10.878  board  feet  per  acre;   18,819  board  feet  for 

1730    acres. 
Birch  above  16  inches  d.b.h.  =  29.183  board  feet  per  acre;   50,487  board  feet  for 

1730  acres. 
Maple  above  16  inches  d.b.h.  =  17.345  board  feet  per  acre;  30,007  board  feet  for 

1730  acres. 
Others  above   16  inches  d.b.h.  =  14.610  board  feet  per  acre;    25,275  board  feet 

for  1730  acres. 
For  further  details    see,  "  A  Practical  Application  of  Pressler's   Formula," 
F.  Q.,  XIV,  2. 


78  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


5.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
AUSTRIAN  FORMULA  (KAMERALTAXE). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This,  and  the  other  so-called 
"  formula  methods  "  ("  Vorrats  methoden  "),  is  characterized  by 
the  fact  that  the  allowed  annual  cut  is  determined,  apart  from 
any  plan  of  management,  by  mathematical  calculation  based 
on  a  formula.  The  main  factors  in  this  calculation  are  the 
growing  stock  and  the  increment.  The  aim  in  regulating  the 
cut  is  to  have  the  actual  growing  stock  (V)  and  the  actual 
increment  (i)  approach  the  normal  forest  characterized  by  a 
normal  growing  stock  (nV)  and  a  normal  increment  (ni).  The 
period  of  time  in  which  the  actual  growing  stock  is  to  be  brought 
to  point  of  normality  is  taken  as  the  whole  rotation.  This 
is  to  be  accompHshed  by  heavier  cutting  if  the  actual  growing 
stock  is  greater  than  the  normal  growing  stock,  and  lighter 
cutting  if  the  actual  growing  stock  is  less  than  the  normal 
growing  stock. 

The  normal  growing  stock  is  calculated  by  the  formula  — 

2 

where   i  =  the  actual  mean  annual  increment.*     In  even-aged 
stands  it  can  also  be  calculated  from  yield  tables  by  the  formula 

n{a-{-b-\-c+  .  .  .  — ),    where    a,    b,    c  .  .  .  ni   are    the    values 

2 

*  Barrington  Moore,  in  an  article  on  "  Methods  of  Regulating  the  Cut  on 
National  Forests,"  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,  Vol.  VII, 
No.  I,  has  suggested  that:  "  If,  as  is  almost  always  the  case,  the  real  growing 
stock  (Gr)  is  made  up  of  only  merchantable  trees,  it  will  be  manifestly  unfair  to 
compare  with  this  real  growing  stock  a  normal  growing  stock,  which  includes  the 
small  as  well  as  the  large  trees.  The  result  would  be  too  small  a  surplus  or  too 
large  a  deficit.  To  obtain  a  more  correct  surplus  or  deficit  a  normal  growing 
stock  which  includes  only  the  merchantable  trees  should  be  used.     This  can  be 

/  V  /? 
found  by  substituting  for  R  in  the  expression a  quantity,  R'  equal  to  the 

2 

difference  between  the  age  of  the  merchantable  trees  and  the  rotation.     For 

example,  if  the  rotation  is  200  years,  and  trees  become  merchantable  at  60  years 

the  growing  stock  of  merchantable  trees  necessary  to  leave  on  the  area  would  be 

/X140  .          ,    ,  1X200  " 
mstead  of . 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  79 

given  in  the  table  for  each  age  class,  n  the  number  of  years  in 

each  of  the  age  classes,  and  m  the  volume  at  the  rotation  age. 

V  —  nV 

The  main  formula  then  follows:   ^(annual  cut)=i-\ . 

r 

Here  again  i  is  the  actual  mean  annual  increment,  not  the  normal.* 

(b)  Example. — An   uneven-aged    forest   of   Western   yellow 

pine    contains    3,500,000    feet    board    measure    of    timber    12 

inches   diameter   breast   high   and   over   on    1000   acres.     The 

actual  mean   annual   increment  is  assumed   as  0.7   per  cent, 

or  24,500  feet  board  measure;  the  rotation  as  two  hundred  years. 

rr^l  1  •  4.  1  ^^'  200X24,500  ^  ^ 

The    normal    growmg    stock    —^ ^^-^ —  =  2,450,000    feet 

2  2 

board  measure.     The  annual  cut  (y)  then  =zH =  24,500 

,  ^,1:00,000—2,450,000  ,  1,050,000 

_^,30 ^io_^ =  24,500+-^^ =  24.500+5250 

200  200 

=  29,750  feet  board  measure.     In  this  case  there  appears  to  be 

an  excess  growing  stock.     Adopting  Mr.  Moore's  variation  (see 

footnote),  the  result  would  be: 

TVT  1  •  .u  1  ^'^  140X24,^00  J.  ^ 

Normal    growing    stock  =  — =—^ -^^ — =1,715,000     feet 

board  measure. 

rr-i  1       .  /  \     •  ,  V  —  nV  ,  3,^00,000—1,715,000 

The    annual  cut  {y)^i^ =  24,500+^^^^ — '-^-^^ — 

r  200 

=  24,500  +  17,850  =  42,350  feet  board  measure. 

This,  however,  is  not  strictly  accurate,  due  to  the  failure  to 
consider  the  increment  per  acre  of  young  growth.  "  If  the  area 
of  young  growth  below  merchantable  size  is  known,  the  incre- 
ment can  be  found  by  determining  the  number  of  merchantable 
trees  per  acre  which  there  would  be  if  the  stand  were  about 
normally  stocked  and  contained  no  other  age  classes.  The 
volume  of  such  a  stand  divided  by  the  average  age  of  merchant- 


*  There  has  been  some  dispute  about  this,  but  the  matter  seems  settled  by 
the  authoritative  pronouncement  of  Judeich,  "  Forsteinrichtung,"  6th  Edition, 
p.  360,  and  Martin,  "  Forsteinrichtung,"  pp.  216-217. 


80  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

able  trees  will  give  the  increment  per  acre  of  the  young  growth 
below  merchantable  size."  * 

E.g.,  area  of  young  growth  under  12  inches  diameter  breast 
high  =  6  per  cent  of  total  area  (1000  acres)  or  60  acres.  A 
normally  stocked  stand  of  Western  yellow  pine  12  inches  in 
diameter  (about  sixty  years  old)    contains    5850  board  feet;  f 

^—^  =  97.5  board  feet  =  the  increment  per  acre  of  the  young 

growth  below  merchantable  size.  There  are  60  such  acres, 
hence  97.5X60  =  5850  feet  board  measure.  But  the  average 
density  of  stocking  is  only  .7,  so  the  real  increment  =  4095. 
The  increment  of  the  merchantable  timber  has  already  been 
figured  at  24,500  feet;  this  +  the  4095  increment  on  unmer- 
chantable timber  =  28,595.     Then  —  ^  =  -z ^^^  =  2,001,650 

2  2 

feet  board  measure. 

rru  1      4- ^  \     •  I  V  —  nV      o         ,  3,500,000  —  2,001,650 

The  annual  cut  (y)  =t-\ =  28,595+^^-^^ 

r  200 

=  36,087  feet  board  measure. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Dating  from   a  decree    of    the 

Vienna  Hofkammer  in  1788  (whence  the  name  "  Kameraltaxe  "), 

this  method  has  won  the  cognomen  of  "  Austrian,"  although 

in  Austria  it  is  now  used  only  as  a  check  on  other  methods 

of  determining  the  cut   (see  Part  Two).     Adapted  to  rather 

primitive  conditions,  especially  to  irregular,  uneven-aged  forests, 

the  Austrian  formula  has  grave  disadvantages  in  that  it  assumes 

both  i  and  nV  as  constants,  whereas  in  consequence  of  cutting 

and  unforeseen  contingencies   they  are  always  changing,  e.g., 

becoming  better  by  correct  cutting,  becoming  worse  by  storms, 

windfall,  etc.     In  view  of  these  changing  constants  the  formula 

cannot  secure  even  an  approach  to  normal  during  the  next 

rotation  unless  the  cut  is  revised  at  least  every  ten  years. 

*  Barrington  Moore,  ibid. 

t  From  Tables  10  and  19,  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri. 
X  E.  J.  Irish  has  suggested  that  r  and  not  r'  be  used,  since  the  increment  of  the 
young  growth  is  included. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE  OF   WORKING   PLANS  81 

This  revision  is  not  a  part  of  the  original  Kameraltaxe  any  more 
than  is  a  plari  of  cutting  (distribution  of  cut)  so  essential  to  a 
well  regulated  forest;  for,  as  shown  in  Chapter  I,  Section  i, 
no  forest  can  be  normal  unless  increment  and  age-class  distribu- 
tion are  normal.  The  normal  increment  and  normal  growing 
stock  alone  do  not  suffice.  Hence  this  and  the  other  "  formula 
methods  "  are  all  makeshifts  (except  as  a  check  on  other  methods) 
and  must  be  replaced  by  other  and  better  methods  as  soon  as 
conditions  warrant. 

Realizing  these  deficiencies,  Huber  varied  the  Austrian 
method  by  using  the  current  annual  instead  of  the  mean  annual 
increment  and  distributing  the  surplus  or  deficiency  in  growing 
stock  over  the  whole  rotation  in  a  decreasing  series  instead  of 
equally.  This  variation  is,  therefore,  a  transition  to  the  methods 
of  Karl  and  of  Hundeshagen,  which  are  considered  below  (6 
and  7). 

6.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
KARL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This  method  was  probably 
suggested  by  the  Austrian  formula  just  described  (No.  5)  with 
Ruber's  modification.  Karl  takes  the  allowed  annual  cut  as 
equal  to  the  real  current  annual  increment  plus  or  minus  the 
excess  or  deficiency  of  the  actual  growing  stock  when  compared 
with  the  normal  growing  stock,  distributed  over  a  period  of  A 
years  instead  of  over  the  entire  rotation,  as  in  the  Austrian 
formula-.     The  formula  for  the  cut  for  the  first  year  therefore 

. , V-nV 

This  formula  would  apply  accurately  to  subsequent  years 
only  if  i  were  determined  anew  each  year;  for  it  changes  con- 
stantly (see  Method  5  above).  In  order  to  accomplish  the 
approach  to  normal  without  an  annual  recalculation  of  i,  a  third 

expression  is  added  to  the  formula,  namely:    — T~X«  where 

wi  =  the  normal  current  annual  increment  and  M  =  the  number 


82  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

of  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  estimates  were  made.  In 
the  first  year  n  =  0,  and  hence  the  entire  expression  =  0.  In 
consequence  of  the  increase  of  n  the  annual  cut  would  really 
have  to  be  redetermined  each  year,  but,  for  convenience,  Karl 
presupposes  the  adoption  of  ten-year  periods  and  makes 
w  =  5,  i.e.,  the  middle  of  the  ten-year  period  during  which 
the  annual  cut  is  to  be  equal.  At  the  end  of  the  ten-year  period 
a  revision  of  the  cut  takes  place. 

This  third  expression  of  the  formula  is  always  given  the  sign 
opposite  that  of  the  preceding  expression. 

The  entire  formula  is  therefore: 

f           ,       ,v      .  ,  V-nV^(i-ni\ 
y  (annual  cut)  =«zh — T(  — - —  \n. 

In  addition  a  simple  plan  of  cutting  (distribution  of  cut)  is 
drawn  up  as  a  guide  in  the  management  of  the  forest.  How- 
ever, this  plan  of  cutting  plays  no  part  in  the  determination  of 
the  cut,  which  is  by  formula  alone. 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow 
pine  contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches 
and  over  diameter  breast  high,  on  1000  acres.  The  actual 
mean  annual  increment  is  assumed  at  .7  per  cent,  the  rotation 

at  200  years.     nV  then  =  —  =  2,450,000    feet    board    measure.* 

A,  the  period  of  distribution,  is  assumed  as  one-quarter  of  the 
rotation,  or  fifty  years. f  i,  the  actual  current  annual  incre- 
ment, is  averaged  (see  Method  No.  4)  for  the  whole  stand 
and,  reduced  for  the  density  of  stocking,  is  assumed  as  =  i 
per  cent  or,  in  volume,  =35,000  feet  board  measure.  The 
normal  current  annual  increment  is  obtained  from  fully  stocked 
sample  plots  (or  from  yield  tables  in  even-aged  stands),  and  is 
assumed  as  1.2  per  cent,  or  42,000  feet  board  measure.     (With 

*  It  can  also,  in  even-age  stands,  be  calculated  from  yield  table  (see  Method 
No.  s). 

t  This  period  of  distribution  is  chosen  according  to  local  exigencies;  it  had 
best  be  somewhat  longer  than  seems  necessary,  in  order  to  avoid  possible  errors 
and  to  remain  on  the  side  of  conservatism. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  83 

a  density  of  .85  this  would  =  an  actual  increment  of  1.2 X. 85 
=  1.02  or,  roughly  i  per  cent.) 

The  annual  cut  by  the  formula  then  =i± — - — ^(—z — )^ 

,    3,^00,000  —  2,4150,000         /3S1OO0  —  42,ooo\ 

=  35,000  +  -li ^^^  -  {- — ^^^-j  5  = 

35,0004  21,000+ (140)5  =  56,700    feet    board    measure    equals 
annual  cut. 

Adopting  Mr.  Moore's  variation  of  /  instead  of  r  in  de- 
veloping nV  (see  No.  5),  wF=  1,715,000   feet   board  measure. 

The    annual   cut  then    equals  ?dt — - — T(— j — )w  =  35,ooo+ 

3,500,000  —  1,71=5,000        /^s.ooo  —  42,ooo\ 

'-^ ^^ [^ ^ )5  =  35,000  +  35,700 

+  700  =  71,400  feet  board  measure  equals  annual  cut. 

Calculating  the  increment  on  the  area  of  young  growth,  as 
was  done  under  No.  5,  the  result  would  be:   for  nV,  2,001,650 

feet  board  measure.     The  annual  cut  then  equals  izt T 

A 

^—)w  =  35,000+4,095   (the  mean  annual  increment  on  the 

unmerchantable   young   growth,   conservative   since   less   than 

,1                    ^                ,     .                ^x     ,     3,1500,000  —  2,001, 6t5o 
the     current     annual     mcrement)   +  ^^-^ — ^ '-^   — 

50 
3S,ooo  —  42,ooo\  ,  ,  r       , 

-^ )  5  =  35'00o  +  4,095  +  29,967   +  700  =  69, 

762  feet  board  measure  equals  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Karl's  method,  which  dates 
from  1838,  shows  an  advantage  over  the  Austrian  formula  in  so 
far  as  it  uses  the  current  annual  instead  of  the  mean  annual 
increment,  and  in  that  it  distributes  the  excess  or  deficit  over  a 
period  adapted  to  local  conditions  instead  of  arbitrarily  over  the 
whole  rotation.     However,  it  is  incorrect  in  making  the  third 

expression/— J— )«    always   bear   a   sign  opposite  that  of    the 

V-nV 
expression  — - —  directly  preceding  it.     This  would  presume 


84  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

that  an  increase  or  decrease  of  the  actual  growing  stock  is 
always  followed  by  an  increase  or  decrease  in  the  actual  current 
annual  increment.  But  the  exact  opposite  can  happen,  e.g., 
if  overmature  stands  are  replaced  by  thrifty  young  growth  or 
if,  contrariwise,  the  overmature  stock  is  allowed  to  accumulate. 
Karl's  error  probably  arose  through  considering  the  volume  of  a 
forest's  growing  stock  as  comparable  to  a  sum  of  money  which 
bears  more  interest  as  it  increases  in  size.     Judeich  *   therefore 

— —  jw  not  only  incorrect, 
but  unnecessary  in  view  of  the  ten-year  revisions;  which  would 
reduce  the  formula  to  y  =  i± — - —  and  would  make  the  values 
in  the  above  three  examples  56,000,  70,700,  and  69,062  feet 
board  measure  respectively,  the  expression  I— —~jn  =  yoo  fall- 
ing away  in  each  case.  The  only  remaining  difference  between 
Karl's  formula  and  the  Austrian  formula  is,  then,  the  use  of 
current  instead  of  mean  annual  increment  and  of  a  suitable 
period  for  distributing  the  surplus  or  deficit — fifty  years  in  this 
case.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason  why  the  latter  modifica- 
tion can  not  be  applied  directly  to  the  Austrian  formula  (No.  5) 

so   that  it   reads:    y  =  i-\ — ,t    whereupon   the   values    in 

three  examples  under  (5)  would  become: 

(i)  24,500+^^500,000-2^450,000^^^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^^^ 
50 

(2)  24,500 -h^'5°^^°°°~''^'5'°°°  =  6o,2oo  feet,  board  measure. 

50 

(3)  ,8,595 -t-^'5^°'°°^~"'°°^'^5° -58,562  feet,  board  measure. 

*  Lorey's  "  Handbuch  der  Forstwissenschaft,"  2d  Ed.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  421-2. 

t  This  is  Heyer's  formula  as  given  by  Martin's  "  Die  Forsteinrichtung," 
2d  Ed.,  p.  67,  but  Judeich,  who  made  a  special  study  of  this  point,  considers 
it  as  under  9  below,  and  his  precedent  has  been  followed,  although  the  results 
are  exactly  identical.     (See  example  under  No.  9.) 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  85 

With  Judeich's  suggested  modification,  the  value  of  Karl's 
formula  is  as  a  rough  method  in  irregular  stands  or  as  a  check 
upon  other  methods  of  regulating  the  cut.  For  this  purpose 
either  it  or  the  just  suggested  modification  of  the  Austrian 
formula  may  be  used  according  as  the  current  or  the  mean 
annual  increment  has  been  determined. 

7.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
HUNDESHAGEN'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Hundeshagen  conceives  of  the 
increment  or  allowed  cut  as  the  interest  on  the  growing  stock 
and  assumes  that  the  actual  cut  is  to  the  actual  growing  stock 

as  the  normal  cut  is  to  the  normal  growing  stock,  or:    =^  =  -^ 

V     nv 

transposed  this  is  y  =  v—  which  is  the  Hundeshagen  formula. 

nv 

Hundeshagen  calls  the  factor  —  the  "  use  per  cent  "  ("  Nutz- 

nv 

ungs  prozent  ")•     If  nv  is  calculated  by  means  of  the  mean  annual 

increment   ( nv  =  — )    and  7iy  is  taken  as    =  i,   then  —  =  -  and 
\         2  /  nv    r 

y  =  vX-  which  is  the  same  as  Methods  Nos.  2  and  3.  Hun- 
deshagen, however,  calculates  nv  by  means  of  yield  tables. 
V  is  the  volume  actually  present  in  the  forest. 

Hundeshagen  suggests  a  short-cut  method  wherein  for  cal- 
culating nv  and  v  only  those  stands  are  to  be  considered  whose 

age  exceeds  -  and  thereby  a  "  partial  use  per  cent  "  obtained. 

2 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow 
pine  contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches 
and  over  diameter  breast  high,  on  1000  acres.  The  mean 
annual  increment  (/)  is  assumed  at  .7  per  cent,  the  rotation  at 
200  years.  Disregarding  Hundeshagen's  method  of  deter- 
mining 7iv  by  means  of  yield  tables  and  taking  ^-^  =  -  =  — =  .01, 

nv    r     200 
the  formula  gives: 


86  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

'y  =  j,?!2^  =  j)X.oi  =  ^,500,000 X.oi  =35,000    feet    board    measure 

nv 

equals  annual  cut. 

This  result  is  identical  with  that  obtained  by  Von  Mantel's 
formula  (No.  2)  or  by  the  Austrian  formula  (No.  5)  modified 
(as  suggested  under  No.  6)  by  making  the  period  of  distribution 
of  excess  or  deficit  equal  half  the  rotation. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method,  published  by 
Hundeshagen  in  182 1,  was  really  discovered  by  Paulsen  in  1795, 
though  Hundeshagen  never  knew  of  the  latter's  work  until  1830. 
It  presents  no  advantages  over  the  methods  already  described 
and  some  very  substantial  disadvantages: 

(i)  The  assumption  that  the  actual  cut  is  to  the  actual 
growing  stock  as  the  normal  cut  is  to  the  normal  growing 
stock  is  not  always  correct,  especially  not  where  there  are  over- 
mature and  deteriorating  stands  in  the  forest. 

(2)  The  value  of  v  changes  constantly,  hence,  to  be  strictly 
accurate,  y  would  have  to  be  redetermined  annually. 

(3)  The  method  provides  for  no  definite  period  for  the  dis- 
tribution of  surplus  or  saving  of  deficit  in  the  growing  stock.  A 
cutting  plan  is  permissible,  but  does  not  affect  the  volume  of 
the  cut  as  determined  by  the  formula.  Hence  under  the 
method,  overmature  stands  can  be  held  through  many  years 
if  the  growing  stock  is  excessive,  or  immature  stands  cut  off 
though  the  growing  stock  is  already  deficient. 

The  only  real  use  of  the  formula  in  irregular,  uneven-aged 
stands  is  as  a  check  on  other  methods.  Its  use  in  even-aged 
stands  presupposes  normal  yield  tables  and  regulated  conditions, 
neither  of  which  exist  in  America  at  present  nor  are  apt  to  exist 
for  some  time  to  come. 

8.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
BREYMANN'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Based  on  Hundeshagen's  for- 
mula, Bre>Tnann  assumed  that  the  actual  cut  is  to  the  normal 
cut  as  the  actual  average  age  is  to  the  normal  average  age  of  a 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING,  PLANS  87 


stand .     Hence  y  =  ny —  (a  =  age) .      Now  ny  =  ni  (mean    annual 
na 

increment)   and  na  =  -.     The  average  age  can  be  determined 

2 

either  by  area  according  to  the  formula: 

^^/igi+/2a2+/3a3  wherein /i,/2, /a,  etc.,  equal  the  area  of  the 

71+72+73 
various  age  classes  and  a\    02,  03,  etc.,  equal  their  respective 
average  ages,  or  else  the  average  age  can  be  determined  by 
volume  according  to  the  formula : 

v^  +  tP  +  v^ 
a  =  — wherein  v^,  v^,  v^,  etc.,  equal  the  volumes  of  the 

v^     ir     v^ 

a}     a^     a^ 
various  age  or  diameter  classes  and  a^,  a^,  a^,  etc.,  their  respec- 
tive ages. 

(b)  Example. — A  forest  of  Western  yellow  pine  containing 
3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches  and  over 
diameter  breast  high,  on  1000  acres,  is  essentially  uneven-aged, 
but  shows  three  distinct  diameter  classes:  12  to  18  inches, 
average. 14  inches  ("Black  Jacks"),  and  20  inches  and  over, 
average  26  inches  ("  yellow  pines  ").  The  volume  of  the  former 
is  20  per  cent  of  the  total,  or  700,000  feet  board  measure,  the 
volume  of  the  latter  is  80  per  cent  of  the  total,  or  2,800,000 
feet  board  measure.  The  average  age  of  a  14-inch  "  Black  Jack  " 
is  70.5  years,  of  a  26-inch  "  yellow  pine  "  285  years.  '"^  Then 
by  the  formula, 

v^-\-v^     700,000+2,800,000         3,500,000  , 

a  =  — -=- — = — ^^ — =  176  years. 

v^     v^     700,000  2,800,000  10,000+9,818 

a^     a^         70      285 


The  adopted  rotation  is,  however,   only   200  years,   hence 

na  =  -^ =  100.     The  mean  annual  increment    is   placed  at 

2       2 

0.7  per  cent,  or  24,500  feet  board  measure.     By  the  formula 

*  From  Table  9,  Bulletin  loi,  Forest  Service,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric. 


88  THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

'V  =  «>'  — =  24, 5oo(^^)  =  24,500X1.76  =  43,120  feet  board  mea- 
na  \ioo/ 

sure,  equals  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method,  promulgated  by 
Breymann  in  1854,  aims  in  common  with  the  other  "  formula 
methods  "  to  secure  an  approach  of  the  actual  growing  stock 
toward  the  normal  growing  stock.  However,  in  addition  to  the 
employment  of  data  which  are  difficult  and  subject  to  error  in 
irregular  stands  and  extensive  conditions  (e.g.,  normal  incre- 
ment and  average  age  calculations),  it  has  the  strong  draw- 
back that  the  adjustment  of  the  excess  or  deficit  in  the  growing 
stock  is  spread  over  the  whole  rotation,  whereas  the  exigencies 
of  the  occasion  usually  warrant  this  adjustment  in  a  fraction 
of  that  time. 

The  method  is,  therefore,  of  little  practical  value  except 
as  a  check  upon  other  methods  of  regulating  the  cut. 

9.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  GROWING  STOCK  AND  INCREMENT. 
HEYER'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Heyer  bases  his  formula  on 
the  following  premises: 

(i)  If  a  stand  is  normal,  then  an  amount  equal  to  the  mean 
annual  increment  can  be  cut  each  year  so  long  as  the  three 
requisites  of  normality  are  maintained,  i.e.,  (a)  normal  growing 
stock,  {h)  normal  increment,  and  (c)  normal  distribution  of  the 
age  classes. 

(2)  If  normality  in  (a)  and  {b)  exists,  but  (c)  is  abnormal, 
it  can  be  made  normal  if  the  normal  increment  is  cut  annually 
or  periodically, .  and  the  cut-over  stands  immediately  regen- 
erated. 

(3)  If  the  actual  increment  is  less  than  the  normal  incre- 
ment (the  contrary  can  scarcely  ever  occur),  then,  even  if  the 
growing  stock  is  normal,  only  the  actual,  not  the  normal,  incre- 
ment can  be  cut. 

(4)  If  the  growing  stock  is  abnormal  it  can  be  brought 
toward  normality  by  either  cutting  less  than  the  actual  incre- 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  89 

ment  if  the  growing  stock  is  too  small,  or  cutting  more  if  it  is 
too  large. 

(5)  The  period  of  equalization  (x)  of  excess  or  deficit,  i.e., 
the  time  during  which  an  abnormal  stand  is  to  approach  nor- 
mality, can  be  determined  only  with  regard  to  local  exigencies, 
it  must  be  developed  out  of  a  general  plan  of  management 
which  is  in  consonance  with  the  wishes  of  the  owner.  If  v  <  nv 
then  X  must  equal  at  least  a  period  of  years  sufficient  so  that  the 
sum  of  the  actual  increments  during  that  period  equals  the 
difference  between  v  and  nv;  where  this  is  exactly  the  case 
then  y  (the  annual  cut)  equals  o. 

On  these  premises  Heyer  develops  the  formula: 

v-{-ix—nv 

i  is  the  actual  mean  annual  increment,  and  hence  really  varies 
from  year  to  year.  Hence  as  i  improves,  the  approach  toward 
normahty  is  accelerated  to  less  than  x  years,  as  it  grows  smaller 
the  approach  toward  normality  is  retarded  to  more  than  x 
years.  This  variation  of  i  Heyer  meets  by  calculating  i  not 
solely  according  to  its  present  condition,  but  by  conceiving 
of  the  expression  ix  as  the  increment  during  the  period  of  x 
years,  with  regard  to  all  the  probable  changes  in  increment 
during  the  x  years.  This  is  facilitated  by  the  drawing  up  of  a 
plan  of  cutting  (distribution  of  cut)  as  outlined  further  on  in 
the  present  chapter. 

nv  is  found  by  the  formula  —  in  which  Heyer  takes  i  as  the 

2 

normal  mean  annual  increment,  but  at  the  same  time  raises 
the  question  whether  taking  i  as  the  actual  mean  annual  would 
not  be  equally  correct.*  (It  has  now  come  to  be  universally 
considered  as  the  correct  method.) 

(b)  Example. — An  uneven-aged  forest  of  Western  yellow 
pine  contains  3,500,000  feet  board  measure  of  timber  12  inches 

*  Judeich,    "  Forsteinrichtung  "    in    Lorey's    "  Handbuch    der    Forstwissen- 
schaft,"  2d  edition,  Vol.  Ill,  p.  425,  foot-note. 


90  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

and  over  diameter  breast  high,  on  looo  acres.     The  mean  annual 

increment  equals  .7  per  cent,  equals  24,500  feet  board  measure. 

The  rotation  is  taken  at  200  years.     The  normal  growing  stock 

,     ri     200X24,500  ,    ,  •      ^u      r  -. 

equals  —  = ^-^ —  =  2,450,000  leet.     v  is,   theretore,    >nv 

2  2 

by  1,050,000  feet.  This  excess  is,  in  view  of  local  exigencies  and 
the  wishes  of  the  owner,  to  be  distributed  over  -  years  =  — -  =  50 
years  =  it;.     By  the  formula: 

_7^+irt:  —  W2^_3,5oo,ooo+(24, 500X50)  —  2,450,000 
X  50 

3,Soo,ooo+i,2  2!:,ooo  — 2,4c;o,ooo  r    .   1         , 

=  '^-^ ^ ——^ =  45,500  feet  board  measure 

equals  annual  cut,  which  is  exactly  the  same  result  secured  by 
the  Austrian  formula  (No.  5)  modified  as  suggested  under  6, 

r   \    .  .    ,    V  —  nV  ,     S'SOO<000— 2,4^0,000 

(c).  I.e.,  y  =  t-\ =  24,500  +  ^-^^ ^ =45-500 

feet  board  measure.  The  only  difference  is  if  ix  is  modified 
to  correspond  with  expected  changes  during  the  next  x  years — ■ 
as  outhned  above. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Carl  Heyer's  formula  dates 
from  1841,  and  is  perhaps  the  only  one  of  the  formula  methods 
in  active  use  to-day.  Gustav  Heyer,  in  the  revised  edition 
of  Carl  Heyer's  work,*  adds  a  complete  period  distribution  of 
the  cut  similar  to  that  described  under  No.  17  below.  However, 
this  is  possible  only  under  regular  conditions  and  in  even-aged 
stands,  and  in  no  way  destroys  the  effectiveness  of  Heyer's 
formula  in  irregular,  uneven-aged  stands,  although  it  correctly 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  adding  to  the  mere  volume 
determination  of  the  cut  a  "  when  "  and  "  where  "  by  means 
of  a  careful  cutting  plan  (distribution  of  cut)  as  described  below 
in  Section  2  of  the  present  chapter. 

With  this  in  mind,  Heyer's  formula  is  directly  applicable  to 

*  Carl  Heyer,   "  Die  Waldertrags-Regelung,"   1841.     Second  and  third  edi- 
tions edited  by  Gustav  Heyer,  1862  and  1883. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


91 


the  majority  of  American  forests,  especially  to  those  where, 
as  in  virgin  forests,  the  actual  growing  stock  is  far  in  excess 
of  the  normal  growing  stock  and  a  reduction  to  normal  is  of 
prime  importance. 

Summary  and  Comparison  of  the  "  Formula  Methods  " 
The  "  formula  methods,"  or,  more  properly,  the  "  growing 
stock  methods "  ("  vorratsmethoden  "),  for  there  are  other 
methods  employing  formulae  to  determine  the  cut,  all  aim 
to  have  the  actual  growing  stock  approach  the  normal.  This  is 
secured  by  a  purely  mathematical  ratio  of  increment  and  growing 
stock,  whereas,  oftentimes,  the  character  of  the  stands  and  other 
conditions  of  management  which  do  not  admit  of  mathematical 
expression  are  of  more  importance. 

In  combination  with  a  careful  cutting  plan  (distribution  of 
cut)  the  Heyer  formula  serves  as  a  useful  determinator  in  irreg- 
ular, uneven-aged  forests.  It  is  better  than  the  other  formulae 
for  the  reasons  already  detailed  under  (c)  "  Value  and  Appli- 
cation," although  the  other  formulas  will  serve  as  a  useful 
check.  The  superiority  of  the  Heyer  formula  is  still  further 
evident  when  the  results  of  the  examples  based  on  identical 
premises  are  compared: 


y  (annual  cut)  in  feet  board  measure 

Current  No.                            Method 

If  nv  =W 
2 

If  nv  =r;j* 

2 

Including 

young 

growth,  etc. 

5    Austrian  Formula 

29,750 
56,700 

56,000 

35,000 

43,120 
45,500 

35.000 

42,350 
71,400 

70,700 
60,200 

36,087 
69,762 

65,786 

6.  Karl's  Formula   

Karl's  Formula  without  1 -I 

8.   Breymann's  Formula 

58,562 

For  Comparison: 

2.  Von  Mantel's  Formula ) 

3.  Methode  de  Masson ) 

*  See  explanation  under  No.  5:    (a)  "  Description  of  Method  "  and  {b)  "  Ex- 
ample "  of  Austrian  formula. 


92  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

10.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  DIAMETER  CLASSES.     METHODE 
DE  1883   ("  FRENCH  METHOD  ").* 

(a)  Description  of  Method.^Instead  of  constructing  a  stand 
table,  the  total  volume  of  each  diameter  class  should  be  deter- 
mined. Some  figures  should  also  be  obtained  showing  the 
number  of  trees  of  the  diameter  desired  at  the  end  of  the  rota- 
tion (exploitable  diameter)  which  there  would  be  per  acre  in  a 
normally  stocked  stand,  if  no  other  age  classes  were  present. 
Since  these  figures  must  be  taken  in  the  field,  sometimes  before 
the  exploitable  diameter  has  been  decided  upon,  several  diam- 
eters should  be  taken. 

When  the  desired  exploitable  diameter  has  been  decided 
upon,  determine  from  the  growth  figures  the  number  of  years 
necessary  to  produce  this  diameter.  This  number  of  years, 
lengthened  by  a  few  years  to  allow  for  a  possible  delay  in  repro- 
duction, will  be  the  rotation. 

Divide  the  trees  shown  by  the  estimates  into  three  groups  as 
follows : 

First  group,  old  trees.  Those  containing  two-thirds  of  the 
exploitable  diameter  and  above;  e.g.,  if  the  exploitable  diameter 
is  30  inches,  this  group  would  contain  trees  between  20  inches 
and  30  inches. 

Second  group,  medium  trees.  Trees  having  a  diameter  fall- 
ing between  one-third  and  two-thirds  of  the  exploitable  diam- 
eter;  e.g.,  trees  between  10  inches  and  20  inches. 

Third  group,  young  trees.  Everything  with  a  diameter 
less  than  one-third  of  the  exploitable  diameter. 

The  calculation  of  the  cut  is  based  on  groups  i  and  2,  and 
is  made  in  the  following  manner: 

Find  the  volume  of  each  of  the  first  two  groups.  Then  if 
the  volume  of  the  old  trees  is  to  that  of  the  medium  trees  as 
5  is  to  3  the  proportion  of  the  two  groups  may  be  considered 

*  Adapted  from  Barrington  Moore's  article  "  Methods  of  Regulating  the 
Cut  on  National  Forests,"  in  Vol.  VII,  No.  i,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
American  Foresters  " 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  93 

normal.*  If  the  proportion  is  normal  it  will  be  possible  to  cut 
the  group  of  old  trees,  plus  their  increment,  during  the  first 
third  of  the  rotation,  the  increment,  of  course,  being  figured 
for  only  half  of  the  third  of  the  rotation. 

But,  first  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  ascertain  whether  or  not 
the  volume  as  a  whole  is  too  great  or  too  small.  This  is  done  by 
finding  the  total  volume  which  there  would  be  if  half  of  the 
entire  area  were  covered  with  trees  of  just  exploitable  size  f 
(not  of  very  large  mature  trees).  In  obtaining  this  volume  the 
number  of  exploitable  trees  per  acre,  called  for  above,  is  used. 
The  result  should  be  approximately  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  old 
and  medium  trees.  If  the  result  is  less  the  forest  contains  a 
surplus;  if  more,  it  contains  a  deficit.  There  are  five  distinct 
possibilities: 

(i)  The  volume  of  the  old  and  volume  of  the  medium  trees 
may  be  in  the  proportion  of  5:3,  and  sum  of  their  volumes 
normal.  In  this  case  nothing  further  is  necessary  before  the 
actual  calculation  of  the  cut. 

(2)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  be  in  the  pro- 
portion of  5  13,  but  their  sum  less  than  normal.  In  this  case 
it  will  be  necessary  to  increase  the  growing  stock.  This  can  be 
done  by  cutting,  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation,  only  the 
old  trees,  without  their  increment,  or,  if  the  area  is  very  badly 
understocked,  by  cutting  less  than  the  old  trees. 

(3)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  :  3,  and  their  sum  nevertheless  normal.  This  is 
adjusted  by  transfers  from  the  group  which  is  too  large  to  that 
which  is  too  small. 


*  This  ratio  is  based  on  the  relative  age  of  the  old  group  and  the  medium 
group;  it  will  vary  with  the  length  of  the  rotation,  the  conditions  of  growth, 
and  the  species.  In  the  present  instance,  if  the  rotation  age  is  150,  each  group 
covers  50  years,  i.e.,  the  old  group  100-150,  average  125;  the  medium  group 
50-100,  average  75.     Then  the  old  group  is  to  the  medium  group  as  1 25  :  75  =  5  :  3. 

t  In  dealing  with  open  stands,  such  as  Western  yellow  pine  in  the  South- 
west, the  area  must  be  considered  as  fully  stocked  with  exploitable  trees,  but 
due  allowance  must  be  made  for  natural  openings  and  bare  places. 


94  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(4)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  :  3,  and  their  sum  less  than  normal.  This  will 
probably  mean  that  the  volume  of  old  trees  is  deficient,  and 
must  be  increased  by  cutting  less  than  the  otherwise  allowable 
volume  of  old  trees. 

(5)  The  volume  of  old  and  medium  trees  may  not  be  in  the 
proportion  of  5  13,  and  their  sum  more  than  normal. 

This  could  occur  only  with  an  excess  in  the  old  group.  To 
correct  this,  find  the  volume  of  old  trees  necessary  to  make  the 
ratio  5  :  3  with  the  volume  of  the  medium  trees,  and  which, 
added  to  the  volume  of  medium  trees,  will  give  a  normal  growing 
stock.  The  difference  between  this  volume  and  the  actual 
volume  of  old  trees  is  surplus.  This  surplus  must  generally 
be  removed  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation,  for  the  entire 
area  will  be  cut  over  once  during  that  time.  Even  though  it 
were  desirable  to  distribute  this  surplus  over  a  longer  period, 
such  a  course  would  generally  be  impossible,  because  in  virgin 
forests,  most  of  them  of  difficult  accessibility,  the  first  cut  must 
be  heavy  per  acre  to  justify  logging.  Later  cuttings  may, 
without  hardship  to  purchasers,  be  made  lighter. 

When  several  species  occur  in  mixture  all  are  regulated 
together  without  affecting  the  method.  If  one  species  has  a 
more  rapid  growth  and  is  shorter  lived,  requiring  a  shorter 
rotation,  its  exploitable  diameter  should  be  made  lower  than 
that  of  the  other  species. 

The  whole  calculation  is  checked  by  figuring  what  per  cent 
of  the  total  volume  is  represented  by  the  allowable  cut.  This 
per  cent,  after  subtracting  the  surplus,  should  be  approximately 
the  growth  per  cent  of  the  group  of  old  trees. 

The  area  check  on  this  method  is  appHed  as  follows : 

The  whole  working  unit  is  to  be  gone  over  in  one-third 
of  the  rotation.  Since  the  rotation  may  be  long,  this  third 
is  further  divided  into  periods  during  which  the  plan  is  to  run 
without  revision.  If  these  periods  are  too  short  an  unneces- 
sary expense  will  be  incurred  by  frequent  forest  surveys,  whereas 
if  they  are  too  long  there  is  danger  that  the  effects  of  original 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  95 

errors  may  accumulate.  A  period  of  about  twenty  years 
seems  reasonable.  Thus  if  the  rotation  is  i8o  years,  the  whole 
working  unit  will  be  cut  over  in  sixty  years.  If  the  period 
during  which  the  plan  is  to  run  be  twenty  years,  the  area  is 
divided  on  the  basis  of  topography  into  three  parts,  each  con- 
taining about  an  equal  volume,  and  each  to  be  cut  over  in 
twenty  years.  In  some  cases,  where  the  working  unit  does  not 
lend  itself  to  a  division  into  parts  containing  equal  volumes, 
it  may  be  divided  into  unequal  parts,  each  part  to  be  cut  over 
in  a  period  bearing  the  same  relation  to  the  one-third  of  the 
rotation  as  [the  part  bears  the  whole  working  unit.  The 
part  containing  the  largest  proportion  of  overmature  and 
deteriorating  timber  should  be  cut  during  the  first  period. 
This  part  may  be  further  subdivided  for  convenience  into 
watersheds  forming  natural  logging  units  or  groups  of  units 
(blocks). 

(b)  Example. — Total  area  of  working  unit  =  200,000  acres. 

Minimum  merchantable  d.b.h.  =  10  inches. 

Size  of  material  desired:  Sugar  pine  and  yellow  pine  =  30 
inches.     Incense  cedar  =  24  inches. 

The  group  of  old  trees  will  include  those  20  inches  and  over 
d.b.h.  The  medium  trees  will  include  those  between  10  inches 
and  20  inches  d.b.h. 

The  average  length  of  time  required  to  produce  a  tree  30 
inches  d.b.h.,  considering  the  important  species,  is  160  years. 
The  period  of  reproduction  is  approximately  twenty  years. 
Hence  the  rotation  will  be  160+20,  or  180  years.  Incense 
cedar  is  shorter  lived  and  more  rapid  growing,  hence  will  be  con- 
sidered exploitable  at  24  inches.* 


*This  exploitable  diameter  for  incense  cedar  will  cause  a  slight  inac- 
curacy in  that  the  medium  trees  should  be  taken  to  8"  instead  of  10"  to 
correspond  with  the  24".  On  the  othar  hand,  the  volume  between  8"  and  10" 
will  be  small,  and  if  desired  can  be  allowed  for  by  sample  tallies  over  a  small 
percentage  of  the  strips.  The  cutting  of  a  short-lived  species  to  a  lower 
diameter  limit  is  desirable  in  this  case  because  the  area  is  gone  over  only  once 
in  60  years. 


96 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 


Table  of  Estimates 
Medium  Trees  Old  Trees 


Volume  M.  Feet 

1 

Volume  M.  Feet 

Sugar 
pine 

Yel- 
low 
pine 

Incehse 
cedar 

Total 

D.  B.  H. 
inches 

Sugar 
pine 

Yel- 
low 

pine 

Incense 
cedar 

Total 

Volume  of 

Volume  of 

10 

Volume  of 

Volume  of 

sugar  pine 

incense   ce- 

II 

sugar  pine 

incense  ce- 

and yellow 

dar  for  each 

12 

and  yellow 

dar  for  each 

pine   for 

diameter 

13 

pine    for 

diameter 

each  diam- 

class up  to 

etc. 

each  diam- 

class      16" 

eter  class 
up  to  19", 
inclusive. 

15",    inclu- 

eter    class 
20"     and 
over. 

and  over. 

200,000 

1,800,000 

From  the  table  we  find  the  actual  proportion  of  old  and 
medium  trees  to  be: 

Old  trees  =1,800,000  M.  feet 
Medium  trees  =     200,000  M.  feet 


Total,  2,000,000  M.  feet 


The  normal  proportion  should  be: 


Old  trees,  2,ooo,oooX|  = 
Medium  trees,  2,000,000X1  = 


,250,000 
750,000 


But  the  normal  growing  stock  over  the  whole  area,  consider- 
ing half  of  the  area  stocked  with  30-inch  trees,  should  be  1,120,000 
M.     This  should  be  divided  between  the  two  groups  as  follows: 


Old  trees. 
Medium  trees. 


,120,000X1  ■ 
,  1 20,000  Xi 


700,000  M. 
420,000  M. 


M. 


Hence  although  there  is  a  surplus  of  1,800,000—700,000  = 
1,100,000  M.  feet  of  old  trees,  there  is  a  deficit  of  420,000  — 
200,000=  220,000  M.  in  the  medium  trees.  If  all  the  old  trees 
were  cut  during  the  first  third  of  the  rotation  the  growing 
stock  would  be  depleted.  Therefore  220,000  M.  feet  will  be 
taken  from  the  lower  diameters  of  the  large  trees,  chiefly  from 
the  more  valuable  species,  and  added  to  the  medium  trees. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  97 

The  resulting  surplus  will  be  1,100,000  —  220,000  =  880,000  M. 
This  surplus  is  to  be  removed  during  the  first  third  of  the 
rotation.  The  cut  for  the  first  third  of  the  rotation  will  there- 
fore be  the  880,000  M.,  surplus  and  the  700,000  M.  normal 
volume  of  old  trees,  plus  the  increment  on  their  sum.  This 
increment  will  be  12,000  M.  per  annum,  or  12,000X30  =  360,000 
for  the  sixty-year  period.*  Therefore  the  annual  cut  for  the 
first  third  of  the  rotation  will  be: 

,,         880,000+700,0004- S60,000  T,*-       r        . 

Y  = '—^ ^ =  32,333  M.  feet. 

This  amounts  to  1.61  per  cent  of  the  total  volume.  Not 
counting  the  surplus  or  increment  on  the  surplus,  there  will  be 
a  cut  of  only  853,000  M.  feet  for  the  sixty-year  period,  or  an 
annual  cut  of  only  14,216  M.  feet.  This  is  but  .71  per  cent  of 
the  total  volume,  or  approximately  the  increment  on  the  group 
of  old  trees. 

In  carrying  out  this  method,  site  qualities  producing  very 
marked  differences  in  growth  must  be  distinguished  in  the  field 
work  and  kept  separate  in  the  computation.  For  instance,  in 
some  of  the  very  dry  limestone  soils  of  the  Western  yellow-pine 
belt  of  the  Southwest  the  trees  are  small  and  stunted,  and  even 
when  mature  hardly  reach  the  diameter  of  poles  on  ordinary 
sites.  Such  areas  if  small  and  unimportant  may  be  thrown 
out  and  ignored;  but  if  of  some  extent  they  should  generally 
receive  a  separate  calculation  and  proper  consideration  in  the 
final  allotment  of  the  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — A  disadvantage  of  the  French 
method  is  that  it  requires  the  tallying  of  trees  down  to  one- 
third  of  exploitable  diameter.  This  means  that  if  the  ex- 
ploitable diameter  is  24  inches,  everything  above  8  inches  must 
be  tallied.  It  is,  therefore,  best  adapted  to  a  high  diameter 
limit  and  long  rotations,  which  is,  however,  generally  the  case 
in  many  of  our  selection  forests.     The  advantages  of  the  method 

*  The   increment   is   taken   for  only  half   of  the  period   because   cutting  is 
going  on. 


98  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

are  elasticity  and  a  degree  of  accuracy  not  attainable  with 
formulae. 

11.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED    ON    DIAMETER    CLASSES.      ODIAN 
METHOD.* 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — This  method  is  based  on  the 
principle  that  a  certain  number  of  trees  reach  a  size  suitable 
for  cutting  every  year  or  period  of  years.  The  aim  of  the  method 
is  to  cut  just  this  number  of  trees. 

The  data  required  are: 

1.  A  careful  enumeration  of  the  growing  stock.  For  this 
purpose  five  or  six  broad  classes  are  made  from  seedlings  up  to 
mature  trees. 

2.  Growth  figures,  particularly  showing  the  number  of  years 
required  to  pass  through  each  class. 

3.  Figures  showing  the  percentage  of  mortality  suffered  by 
each  class  as  it  passes  into  the  next  class  above  and  into  the 
final  or  mature  class. 

The  rotation  is  generally  the  sum  of  the  number  of  years 
required  to  pass  through  each  age  class  till  the  exploitable  size 
is  reached,  with  generally  a  few  years  added  on  to  make  it  con- 
servative. The  felling  period  is  a  convenient  subdivision  of  the 
rotation  and  should  be  at  least  the  length  of  time  required 
to  produce  enough  material  to  justify  the  next  cut. 

The  annual  cut  is  calculated  in  the  following  manner:  The 
number  of  trees  in  each  class  is  multiplied  by  the  percentage 
which  will  survive  till  maturity.  The  results  are  added  and 
then  divided  by  the  rotation  plus  one-half  of  the  felling  period. f 

In  order  to  find  the  growing  stock  of  Class  I  trees  the  average 

*  Adapted  from  Barrington  Moore's  article,  "  Methods  of  Regulating  the 
Cut  on  National  Forests,"  in  Vol.  VII,  No.  i,  "  Proceedings  of  the  Society  of 
American  Foresters." 

t  Half  of  the  felling  period  is  added  to  the  rotation  to  allow  for  the  number 
of  Class  I  trees  (the  largest  class)  which  should  always  be  on  the  ground,  because 

there  should  always  be  a  number  of  Class  I  trees  equal  to  the X 

2 
average  annual  cut. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


99 


annual  cut  as  found  above  is  multiplied  by  half  of  the  felling 
period.  In  order  to  allow  for  mortality  this  number  is  raised 
by  multiplying  by 

/Mortality  per  cent\ 

The  growing  stock  thus  found  is  compared  with  the  actual 
growing  stock  to  find  whether  there  is  a  surplus  or  deficit.  The 
annual  cut  is  allotted  accordingly,  distributing  this  surplus 
or  deficit  over  a  certain  period  according  to  the  proportion  of 
lower  classes  and  reproduction. 

The  area  check  is  applied  by  prescribing  the  order  of  the 
fellings  through  the  different  subdivisions  of  the  working  unit 
A  table  is  drawn  up  showing  for  each  year  the  subdivision  on 
which  the  cut  is  to  be  located  and  number  of  trees  to  be  removed. 

(b)  Example. — 

Total  Growing  Stock 
Class 


Species 

I 

28"  and 

over 

d.b.h. 

II 
24"  to  28" 

III 
18"  to  24" 

IV 
2" to  18" 

v 

6"  to  12" 

VI 

Below 

6"  d.b.h. 

Yellow  pine .... 

13,178 

11,366 

19,770 

42,577 

117,590 

215,667 

Rotation  =  150  years 
Felling  period  =    15  years 

From  a  table  showing  per  cent  of  each  class,  reaching  Class  I, 
and  the  per  cent  of  Class  I  surviving  fifteen  years,  the  following 
calculation  is  made:     Average  annual  cut 

_(i3,i78X.95)  +  (ii,366X.83)  +  (i9,77oX.66)  +  (42,577 
i5o+¥- 
X.50) +  (ii7,59oX  .30) +  (215,667  X. 10) 

i5o+¥- 
_  12,519+9472 +  13,180+21,288+35,277 +  21,567 


^  113,303  _ 
157-5 


157-5 
719  trees  per  annum. 


100  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

The  growing  stock  of  Class  I  trees,  which  there  should  always 
be,  is  therefore  719 XVX 1-025  =  5532. 

Since  there  are  13,178  Class  I  trees,  a  surplus  of  13,178  — 
5532  =  7646  trees  exists. 

The  cut  for  the  period  over  which  it  is  desired  to  distribute 
the  surplus  will  be:  The  present  Class  I  trees,  plus  the  total 
number  of  trees  reaching  Class  I  in  the  period,  minus  the 
growing  stock,  all  divided  by  the  period. 

A  modification  may  be  made  by  calculating  the  annual  cut 
on  the  basis  of  only  the  upper  classes  (the  first  three  or  four) 
instead  of  on  all  classes.  The  sum  of  these  classes  is  then 
divided  by  the  number  of  years  which  the  lowest  class  used 
will  take  to  become  Class  I  instead  of  by  the  rotation. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Practically  the  only  place 
where  the  single  tree  method  is  used  is  in  India.  There  it  is 
used  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  methods.  It  is  par- 
ticularly well  adapted  to  mixed  tropical  forests  in  which  only 
one  or  two  of  the  many  species  found  is  merchantable. 

The  disadvantages  of  the  method  are  its  lack  of  elasticity, 
its  complexity,  and  liability  to  error;  it  also  requires  as  many 
data  as  better  methods.  Hence  it  should  be  used  only  in  excep- 
tional  cases.*  '  (f^^^ 

12.  BY  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  DIAMETER  CLASSES.     DIAMETER- 
CLASS  METHOD  (HUFNAGL). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Variation  I.  For  uneven-aged 
(selection)  forests  the  cut  can  be  determined  if  all  stands  or 

trees  more  than  -  years  old  are  known  and  their  increment. 

2 

This  presupposes  the  fixation  of  the  rotation  age.     By  means 
of  ring-counts  on  stumps  of  average  diameter  or  from  other 

*  An  attempt  to  modify  this  method  for  application  in  the  United  States 
was  made  by  Walter  J.  Morrill  in  an  article  "  Method  for  Regulating  the  Yield 
in  Selection  Forests,"  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XI,  No.  i,  pp.  21-27.  This  method, 
while  rather  ingenious,  is  not  of  great  practical  importance  since  it  rests  on  the 
very  dubious  basis  of  average  crown  spread. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  101 

data,  it  is  then  determined  at  what  diameter  breast  high  the 
trees  have  an  age  equal  to  -.     All  trees  of  this  diameter  and 

2 

over  are  next  estimated — rpreferaWy^TTrj-inch  diameter  classes 
— and  their  volume  and  current  annual  increment  determined. 

Annual  cut  =  volume  of  trees  or  of  diameter  classes  -  years 

2 

and  over,  plus  increment  thereof  in  -  years;  this  sum  divided  by 

4 

-.     (For  underlying  theory  see  Formula  Methods  above.) 

Variation  IT.  Going  a  step  further,  diameter  can  be  sub- 
stituted for  age. '  After  determining  at  what  diameter,  and 
upwards,  the  trees  are  most  merchantable,  it  follows  that  all 
trees  of  this  diameter  and  larger  are  merchantable  and  should, 
other  things  being  equal,  be  cut  in  the  near  future,  i.e.,  during 
a  period  of  years  required  for  the  next  lowest  diameter  class  or 
classes  to  produce  an  equal  number  of  merchantable  stems. 
But  the  lower  diameter  classes  contain  more  trees  than  the  higher 
classes,  therefore  more  than  replacing  those  cut  in  the  higher 
class. 

To  express  this  numerically,  the  period  of  years  separating 
the  diameter  classes  must  be  known,  i.e.,  the  average  age  of  the 
average  tree  in  each  diameter  class.  Let  this  value  equal  ai, 
^2,  as,  etc.  The  volume  of  the  average  tree  in  each  diameter 
class  must  be  also  known  (volume  tables,  measurement  of  repre- 
sentative trees,  etc.).  Let  this  value  equal  v\,  V2,  V3,  etc.  Let, 
finally,  the  number  of  trees  in  each  diameter  class  equal  wi, 
«2,  «3,  etc.,  and  the  formula  follows: 


A  1       4.  /  \        ^^4  .  W3— W4      ,  W2  — «3      ,  ni—n2 

Annual  cut  {y)  = ^'4 H vs -\ V2-\ =  Vi. 

a^  —  a3         a^  —  as         az  —  a-z         ao  —  ai 

The  formula  indicates  the  cut  in  number  of  trees  of  each 
class  as  well  as  in  volume. 
'  Hufnagl  further  advocates  the  comparison  of  y  obtained  by 


102  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

this  method  with  y  obtained  by  current  annual  increment  (method 
No.  4  above)  and,  if  necessary,  the  use  of  only  the  first  one  or 
first  two  of  this  series  of  expressions  so  as  to  make  the  results 
comparable,  and  also  periodic  revisions  of  the  data  on 
which  the  method  is  based.  The  class  represented  by  ai,  i)\, 
and  Ml,  is  usually  the  one  just  below  the  diameter  limit  of 
cutting. 

Since  the  method  is  particularly  intended  for  selection 
forests  it  is  Hufnagl's  theory  that  the  cutting  cycle  shall  equal 
approximately  a^-az  years,  i.e.,  the  time  required  for  the 
highest  merchantable  diameter  class  to  be  replaced  by  the  one 
next  below  it. 

In  its  practical  application  it  is  customary  to  choose  a 
maximum  as  well  as  the  usual  minimum  diameter  limit;  that 
is,  the  maximum  diameter  of  trees  which  it  is  practicable  to 
produce.  This  usually  leaves  a  surplus  of  still  larger  trees 
produced  under  virgin  conditions.  This  surplus  may  well  be 
distributed  over  the  cutting  cycle  or  disposed  of  more  rapidly 
or  more  slowly  as  local  exigencies  dictate. 

(b)  Examples.— £a:aw/>/e  oj  Variation  /.—It  is  desired  to 
determine  the  cut  of  hemlock  in  the  slope  type  of  Catskill 
forest,  illustrated  by  the  stand  and  stock  tables  quoted  above 
from  Bulletin  ii  of  the  N.  Y.  State  Conservation  Commission.* 
A  breast-high  diameter  limit  of  12  inches  is  to  be  observed 
which,  according  to  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture  Bui.  152,  n.  s., 
**  The  Eastern  Hemlock,"  table  10,  corresponds  to  a  rotation 

of  160  years.     The  same  table  shows  that  at  eighty  years  {-\ 

a  diameter  breast  high  of  4  inches  is  attained. 

The  volume  of  all  hemlock  trees  over  4  inches  is  403.08 
board  feet  per  acre  (Table  5,  Bui.  11).  The  current  annual 
increment  thereon  is  5.478  board  feet  per  acre  (see  example  of 
method  No.  4.)     The  annual  cut  then 

*  Bulletin  11,  "  Forest  Survey  of  a  Parcel  of  State  Land,"  Albany,  N.  Y., 
191 5,  Tables  4  and  5.     See  pages  47  and  48. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  103 

403.08+ /5.478X-) 

r 

2 

^403 .08 +(5. 478X40) 
80 

_403.o8  +  2i9.i2 
~  8^ 

622.20 


80 


=  7.778  board  feet  of  hemlock  per  acre 


or,  for    the   1730  acres  in    this  type,    =13,456  board  feet  of 
hemlock. 

Example  of  Variation  II . — It  is  desired  to  determine  the 
cut  of  hemlock  in  the  slope  type  of  Catskill  forest,  illustrated 
by  the  stand  and  stock  tables  quoted  above  from  Bulletin  11 
of  the  N.  Y.  State  Conservation  Commission.*  The  number 
of  years  required  to  grow  from  one  diameter  class  to  the  next 
has  been  determined  by  increment  borings  and  the  current  annual 
increment  per  cent  has  been  worked  out  by  Pressler's  formula 
(see  data  in  example  under  Method  No.  4).  These  show  that 
trees  of  20  inches  d.b.h.  and  over  have  a  c.a.i.  of  less  than  i 
per  cent  and  so  may  be  regarded  as  surplus  stock  (z  in  method 
No.  4).  The  d.b.h.  limit  chosen  is  12  inches.  This  leaves  a 
merchantable  stand  of  trees  from  12  to  20  inches,  d.b.h.,  as  the 
basis  of  computation.  It  is  simpler  to  group  these  in  3-inch 
classes,  as  follows:  17  to  19  inches  equals  18-inch  class;  14  to 
16-inch  equals  15-inch  class;  11  to  13-inch  equals  12-inch 
class.  To  this  must  be  added  the  class  immediately  below  the 
diameter  limit  class,  that  is,  8  to  10  inches  equals  9-inch  class. 
From  table  9  of  the  aforesaid  Bulletin  11  are  taken  the  volumes 
of  18,  15,  12,  and  9-inch  trees,  respectively.     The  years  required 


*  Bulletin  11,  "  Forest  Survey  of  a  Parcel  of  State  Land,"  Albany,  N.  .Y., 
1915,  Tables  4  and  5.     See  pages  47  and  48.  ' 


104 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


to  grow  from  one  class  to  the  next  are  found  by  working  up  the 
increment  borings.*     The  complete  data  are  as  follows: 


D.  B.  H.  Class 
(Inches.) 

9 

12 

15 

i8 


Volume  per  Tree. 

Board  Feet. 
(Table  9.  Bui.  11.) 


42  U) 

293  w 


Number  of  Trees  per 

Average  Acre. 

(Table  4,  Bui.  11.) 


.9l(«i) 
.87(«2) 
•  33(»3) 
.  2o{ni) 


Years  Required  to 

Grow  from  One  Class 

to  Next. 


27(«2-ai) 
32(03-0-2) 
35(04-03) 

cc  =  at—a3 
=  35  years 


Applying  the  formula,  y,  the  annual  cut, 


—^ — i;4=—X  293  =  1.674  board  feet  per  acre, 
«4-a3         35 

+25r5,%3  =  :i3xi72=   .637      "        "     "     " 


«4-<J3  35 

.1i=^,,^-^x  93  =  1-569 

^3-^2  32 


32 
.04, 


.  n\—n2        -^tvx  c 

-\ vi=—^X  42=   .062 

fl2  — fll  27' 


Total 


=  3-942 


It         K  (( 


a      li       (( 


II       ((        ee 


^2_^  168.48  bd.  ft  per  ac.  of  surplus  ^^3^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^       ^^^^^ 

cc       35  years,  the  cutting  cycle 


Total  annual  cut 


=  8.756 


((         iC  (( 


or,  for  the  1730  acres  in  this  type  =  16,117  board  feet  of  hemlock. 
Comparing    this    with    the    results    obtained    from    similar 
data  by  method  No.  4,  the  annual  cut  does  not  appear  exces- 
sive.    If,   however,    the  result  were  much  higher  than  those 


See  "  A  Practical  Application  of  Pressler's  Formula,"  F.  Q.,  XIV,  No.  2. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  105 

by  method  No.  4,  the  formula  should  be  cut  down  to  the  first 
one  or  two  expressions  of  the  series;    e.g.,  if  to  the  first  ex- 

pression,  then  y= ?4H — =1.674+4.814  =  6.488  feet  b.m. 

a4  — a.j         cc 

per  acre  or,  for  the  1730  acres  in  this  t>pe  =  11,224  board  feet 

of  hemlock. 

The  cutting  cycle  equals  04  —  ^13  =  35  years. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method,  first  published 
by  Hufnagl  in  1893,*  is  excellently  adapted,  especially  in  its 
second  variation,  to  the  irregular  and  overmature  selection 
forest  which  is  so  commonly  encountered  in  all  parts  of  America. 
It  is  especially  well  suited  to  virgin  stands,  tending  to  cut  the 
excess  growing  stock  (of  overmature  timber)  within  the  first 
cutting  cycle,  and  yet  providing  ample  material  for  a  second 
cut  at  the  end  thereof. 

The  data  which  are  required  are  those  of  every  thorough 
forest  survey  preliminary  to  a  working  plan,  namely,  data  on 
diameter-class  distribution,  on  number  of  trees  in  each  (in 
representative  stands),  of  volume,  and  of  diameter  growth 
or,  in  the  first  variation,  of  increment  (current  annual).  If 
it  is  not  feasible  to  tally  diameter  classes  for  the  entire  tract, 
carefully  chosen,  fully  stocked  sample  plots  of  varying  site 
qualities  will  suffice,  but  when  applied  to  the  total  stand  must 
be  reduced  to  correspond  with  the  average  density  of  stocking. 
All  data  should  be  revised  at  least  once  in  ten  years. 

When  accompanied  by  a  plan  of  cutting  (distribution  of 
cut)  for  the  next  decade,  the  method  is  perhaps  the  most  prac- 
tical yet  invented  for  irregular  selection  forests.  Indeed,  it  is 
intended  for  just  such  conditions  in  the  more  remote  parts  of 
Austria. 


* "  Oesterreichische   Vierteljahrschrift   fiir  Forstwesen,"    1893,  pp.    177   and 
following. 


106  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

13.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— FOR  ENTIRE  FOREST.     METHODE 
DU  CONTROLE  (GURNAUD). 

(a)  Description  of  Method.* — This  method,  intended  for 
selection  forest,  was  originated  in  France  by  M.  Gurnaud. 
It  has  been  tried  successfully  in  France  and  in  Switzerland. 
It  consists  in  making  successive  measurements  of  the  whole 
forest,  going  over  the  whole  area  at  short  intervals  of  six  to 
ten  years.  The  remeasurements  are  all  made  under  absolutely 
like  conditions.  The  amount  of  increment  is  obtained  by 
deducting  from  the  volume  found  at  the  last  measurement 
that  of  the  preceding.  A  stand  table  is  made.  The  stand  is 
divided  roughly  into  three  main  diameter  classes.  The  first 
class  includes  all  trees  below  .30  meter  in  diameter  (about 
12  inches),  the  second,  between  .30  and  .50  meter  (approxi- 
mately 12  to  20  inches),  the  third,  over  .50  meter  (over  20  inches). 
The  cut  is  taken  in  per  cent  of  the  material  on  the  area;  based 
on  the  vigor  of  growth  at  different  ages. 

The  method  seeks  the  proportion  of  trees  in  the  different 
classes  at  each  remeasurement.  Growing  stock  and  increment 
must  be  determined  by  some  measure  common  to  both,  to  be 
determined  by  the  parties  concerned.  Muret  advocates  the 
use  of  basal  area  for  estimating  the  cut,  rather  than  the  estimate 
of  the  actual  cubic  contents,  since  the  cubic  contents  vary 
in  exact  proportion  with  the  basal  area. 

One  cannot  establish  a  sustained  annual  yield  by  this  method 
until  the  beginning  of  the  second  period.  The  more  frequently 
inventories  are  taken,  the  more  accurately  can  this  yield  be 
determined. 

"  The  sustained  and  annual  yield  will  fix  and  will  justify:  " 
I.  Whether  the  cuttings  ought  to  cover  all  the  increment,  more 
than  the  increment,  or  less  than  the  increment;    2.  How  and 


*  Adapted  from  M.  Muret's  article:  "  A  Method  of  Yield  Regulation,  Methode 
du  Contr61e,"  translated  by  K.  O.  Ward,  in  Forestry  Quarterly,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  i, 

pp.  43-46. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


107 


where  the  allowed  cut  ought  to  be  distributed  among  the  differ- 
ent classes,  and  what  proportion  of  the  old,  medium,  and  young 
trees  it  should  contain.  The  most  favorable  distribution  among 
the  different  classes  of  the  whole,  according  to  M.  Gurnaud, 
is  50  per  cent  in  the  old  tree  class,  jo  per  cent  in  the  medium 
class,  20  per  cent  in  the  young  class.  In  the  following  cases, 
it  may  be  advantageous  to  change  these  proportions;  for 
example,  to  increase  the  proportion  of  older  trees  if  the  soil 
needs  protection,  or  to  lessen  the  older  classes  according  to  species 
and  exposure,  if  more  sunlight  is  needed  for  the  appearance 
of  natural  reproduction.  This  method  is  much  less  a  method 
of  absolutely  mathematical  results,  appHcable  to  all  forests, 
than  a  simple  process  allowing  the  finding  of  all  necessary 
information  in  the  forest. 

(b)  Example. — A  t>pical  stand  of  Western  yellow  pine 
of  456  areas  *  was  measured  in  1909  and  remeasured  five  years 
later  with  the  following  results: 


1909 

1914 

Increase 
in  five  years. 

Number  of  trees  4  inches  or  over,  d.b.h. 
Total  volume,  ft.  b.  m.,  1 2  ins.  or  over,  d.b.h. 

8,255 
1,550,910 

8,400 
1,756,328 

145 
205,418 

Total  increment  for  five  years  =  13.2  per  cent  =  2.64  per  cent 
per  year.  The  current  annual  increment  per  cent  of  this  stand 
is  therefore  2.64  per  cent.  The  annual  cut  would  therefore  be 
taken  as  2.64  per  cent  of  1,756,328  board  feet  =  46,367  board 
feet.  This  is  an  equivalent  of  102  board  feet  per  acre.  By 
Von  Mantel's  method  the  cut,  assuming  a  rotation  of  160  years, 

would   be   -^-—-^ —  =  21,954   board   feet,    which   is    far    lower 
80 

than  the  circumstances  warrant.     By  method  No.  4,  including 


*  Data  from  "  A  Preliminary  Report  on  the  Progress  in  the  Remeasurement  of 
Sample  Plots  on  the  Coconino  and  Tusayan  National  Forests,  Arizona,"  by  G.  A. 
Pearson,  briefed  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  i,  pp.  60-63. 


108  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

s  and  zi  in  figuring  cc,  the  cut  would  be  41,084  board  feet.  The 
cut  would  be  distributed  among  the  different  size  classes  as 
dictated  by  silvicultural  and  market  conditions. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — The  method's  chief  advantage 
is  that  an  exact  account  of  what  is  done  can  be  kept,  and  of 
the  effect  produced  by  the  operations  carried  on,  so  as  to  modify 
future  proceedings  to  suit  the  object  in  view.  The  short 
period  between  surveys  allows  checking,  and  lessens  the  chance 
of  overestimating.  However,  forest  management  in  America 
is  seldom  intensive  enough  to  apply  the  method  since  it  involves 
too  much  time  and  expense  by  requiring  such  frequent  re- 
measurements  of  the  whole  forest. 

14.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  AGE  CLASSES.     DIRECT 
METHOD  (HUFNAGL  *). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — If  the  volume  and  the  area 
of  the  oldest  stands  which,  presumably,  will  be  cut  in  the  next 
ten  or  twenty  years  is   known   the   average  volume  per  acre 

equals  -.     This  volume  multiplied  by  the  allowed  annual  cut 
a 

in  area  equals  the  allowed  annual  cut  in  volume. 

(b)  Example. — Referring  to  example  of  method  No.  i  above: 
Variation  I.  Area  not  reduced.  Annual  cutting  area  equals 
166  acres.  The  volume  of  the  oldest  stands  to  be  cut  in  the 
next  twenty  years  (oldest  age  class)  equals  140,000  M.  feet  board 
measure,  their  area  is  3500  acres. 

V 

Then   the   average   volume   per   acre  =  -  =  4oM.    feet   board 

a 

measure. 

The  volume  of  the  annual  cut^4oM.Xi66  =  664oM.  feet 
board  measure. 

Variation  II.  Area  Reduced.  Using  the  figures  given  in 
the  example  of  Variation  II,  Method  No.   i   above:    Annual 


*  Hufnagl,  "  Praktische  Forsteinrichtung,"  is  the  source  of  this  and  the  sub- 
sequent method  (No.  15). 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  109 

cutting  area  reduced  to  terms  of  Site  Quality  I  equals  130  acres. 
The  stands  ripe  for  cutting  in  the  next  twenty  years  (oldest 
age  class)  show  an  average  stocking  of  .7  and  an  average  site 
quality  II,  and  hence  (from  yield  tables  or  from  measurements 
of  sample  plots  of  mature  fully  stocked  stands  of  varying  site 
qualities)  an  average  volume  of  46,90oX.7=32,830  feet  board 
measure  per  acre.  130  acres  are  to  be  cut  per  annum.  This 
is  equivalent  (see  example  method  No.  i,  Var.  II)  to  166  acres 
of  site  quality  II.  Hence  the  annual  cut  =  32,830X166  = 
5,449,780  feet  board  measure. 

Variation  III.  Hufnagl.  Using  the  figures  in  the  example 
under  method  No.  i : 

The   volume  of  the  annual  cut  =  -X29. 

a 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — As  noted  under  similar  heading 
in  method  No.  i,  the  method  has  all  the  disadvantages  of  a  fixed 
value  for  the  rotation,  instead  of  a  naturally  adjustable  one, 
and  allows  none  of  the  free  play  so  necessary  for  the  best  silvi- 
culture. Variations  I  and  III  are  exceedingly  simple,  and 
hence  quite  well  adapted  to  forests  with  fairly  uniform  conditions, 
i.e.,  coppice  and  coppice  with  standards.  Variation  II  is  too 
complex  for  all  but  the  most  intensive  conditions,  and  requires 
all  the  data,  while  possessing  none  of  the  advantages  of  other 
and  better  methods.  Obviously  the  method  presupposes  an 
age-class  table,  and  hence  a  forest  composed  of  fairly  even- 
aged  stands.  It  is  therefore  essentially  not  a  method  for  selec- 
tion forests.*  Its  chief  use  is  as  an  area  check  on  the  figures 
obtained  by  other  methods. 


*  In  selection  forest  the  area-volume  calculation,   as  stated  under  Method 

No.  I,  is  based  on  the  cutting  cycle  and  not  on  the  rotation.     It  may  be  expressed 

total  area 
as  a  formula:    annual  cut  = X  amount  to  be  removed  per  acre.     In 

cc 

this  form  it  is  useful  as  an  area  check  on  other  methods  of  calculating  the  cut  in 
selection  forests. 


110  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

15.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  AGE  CLASSES.     HTJF- 
NAGL'S  METHOD. 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Hufnagl's  premise  is  that  the 
sustained  yield  can  be  determined  directly  if  the  volume  and 

the  increment  of  the  stands  now  more  than  -  years  old  is  known. 

2 

This  method  presupposes  a  tabulation  containing  the  volume 
and  area  of  all  stands  of  over  -  years.     To  this  volume  is  to  be 

2 

added,  also,  the  increment  of  these  stands  in  the  next  -  years; 

4 
for  since  the  area  of  these  stands  diminishes  each  year,  and  in 

the  year  -  =  o,  the  increment  can  only  apply,  on  an  average 

2 

to  half  the  area. 

As  to  the  increment,  Hufnagl  distinguishes  two  variations 
of  his  method  according  as  I  the  current,  or  II  the  mean  annual 
increment  is  used. 

I.  The  current  annual  increment  of  each  stand  over  -  years 

2 

old  having  been  determined  (by  yield  tables  or  by  field  meas- 
urements. Chapter  I,  Section  i),  the  sum  of  these  increments 
is  used  in  the  formula  which  follows: 

II.  The  mean  annual  increment  equals  -.     It  can  be  deter- 

r 

mined  from  yield  tables  or,  empirically,  by  measuring  average 
stocked  stands  of  average  site  quality  whose  age  approximates 

V 

r  years.     -  then  equals  the  mean  annual  increment. 
r 

Hufnagl's  formula  then  follows  (letting  v  equal  the  volume 
of  stands  -  years  and  over,   a  their  area,  i  the  increment  in 

2 

board  feet  per  acre  per  annum,  current  or  mean) : 

v+aXiX- 

Y  = 4 

r 

2 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  111 

If  i  equals  mean  annual  increment  it  will  usually  be  lo  to  20 
per  cent  less  than  the  current  annual  increment.  This  makes 
its  use  the  more  conservative  of  the  two. 

(b)  Example. — In  a  white  pine  forest  of  2160  acres,  site 
quality  II,  with  a  rotation  of  sixty  years,  the  stands  thirty 
years  and  older  have  a  volume  of  33,041,000  feet  board  measure 
on  1 1 20  acres.  The  mean  annual  increment  for  the  rth  (sixtieth) 
year  equals  782  board  feet  per  acre.*     Then  by  formula: 

v+aXiX-  ,  , 

Y= 4  =  33>04i,ooo+(ii2oX782)i5 

r  30 


2 

_  33,041,000+13, 137,600  _ 


1,539,287  feet  board  measure 


30 

=  annual  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — Hufnagl's  method  shows  much 
originality  and  is  applicable  to  even-aged  stands  of  only  mod- 
erate regularity,  the  very  conditions  encountered  in  many 
American  forests.  Its  age-class  differentiation  is  very  simple, 
as  is  also  the  volume  and  increment  determination.  The  latter 
had  best  be  the  mean  annual  increment,  and  can  readily  be 
calculated  from  sample  plots  if  yield  tables  are  lacking. 

A  disadvantage  of  the  method  is  the  rigid  fixation  of  the 
rotation  age,  which  should  really  be  a  flexible  quantity;  but  if 
this  is  offset  by  frequent  revisions  at  regular  intervals  the  method 
will  pass  muster,  especially  in  the  irregular  stands  common  to 
most  parts  of  America.  If  this  method  is  adopted,  it  must 
always  be  supplemented  by  a  careful  cutting  plan  (distribu- 
tion of  cut). 


*  Table  7,  Bui.  13,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric,  n.  s.,  "  White  Pine  under  Forest 
Management." 


112  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

16.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED   ON  AGE   CLASSES.     THE 
STAND  METHOD  (JUDEICH'S   "BESTANDSWIRTSCHAFT  ")• 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Judeich*  bases  his  method  on 
the  undoubted  fact  that  no  method  of  determining  the  cut 
for  a  period  of  years  in  advance — some  even  attempting  to  do  so 
for  the  whole  rotation  or  a  substantial  part  thereof — is  accurate 
without  frequent  revisions  which  recognize  the  unexpected 
changes  inevitable  in  every  stand  no  matter  how  carefully 
managed.  He  therefore  makes  no  attempt  to  regulate  the  cut 
for  more  than  a  decade  in  advance,  but  prescribes  not  only  a 
revision,  but  a  new  plan  at  the  end  of  the  decade. 

In  order  to  secure  a  sustained  yield  the  annual  cut  is  cal- 
culated with  the  following  three  regulating  factors: 

(a)  The  yearly  cutting  area  or  volume ; 

(b)  The  distribution  of  the  age  classes; 

(c)  The  results  of  previous  cuttings. 

The  more  the  results  of  previous  cuttings,  especially  with  regard 
to  their  effect  on  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes,  are  avail- 
able, the  greater  is  the  justification  in  regulating  the  cut  for  only 
a  decade  in  advance.  Where  there  has  been  no  previous  work- 
ing plan  nor  adequate  record  keeping  (with  especial  respect 
to  volume,  area,  and  distribution  of  age  classes)  the  cut 
must  be  determined  two,  three,  or  at  most  four  decades  in 
advance. 

Judeich  does  not  give  any  certain  method  of  ascertaining 
the  cut — either  in  volume  or  in  area — but  adapts  this  to  the 
peculiar  exigencies  of  each  forest.  The  object  of  the  working 
plan  is  the  attainment  of  normality  in  the  distribution  of  the 
age  classes;  this  is  secured  by  a  correct  cutting  series  and 
cutting  policy. 

The  cutting  policy  selects  for  the  next  decade  or  two,  or, 
at  most  three  or  four,  all  the  stands  or  groups  of  stands  which 
require  cutting  for  one  or  more  of  the  following  reasons: 

*  Adapted  from  Lorey,  "  Handbuch  der  Forstwissenschaft,"  2d  edit  .  Vol.  III. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


113 


1.  Administrative  necessity. 

2.  Disease  and  decadence  (overmaturity) . 

3.  Maturity. 

4.  Inferiority,  slow  growth. 

The  sum  of  stands  ready  to  cut  for  reasons  i  to  4  gives  in 
area  and  volume  the  cut  for  the  next  period,  subject  to  the  fol- 
lowing regulating  factors: 

(a)  The  yearly  cutting  area  or  volume. 

(b)  The  distribution  of  the  age  classes. 

(c)  The  results  of  previous  cuttings. 

(a)  Can  be  determined  by  any  of  the  methods  already 
described,  by  area  if  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  is  not 
too  abnormal  (e.g.,  method  No.  i),  by  volume,  preferably, 
if  the  distribution  of  the  age  [classes  is  far  from  normal  and 
there  is  a  preponderance  of  overmature  timber  (e.g.,  method 
No.  9). 

Judeich  expressly  states  that  his  method  is  not  restricted  to 
a  financial  rotation,  but  is  equally  well  adapted  to  rotations  on 
other  bases. 

(b)  Example. — Assuming  a  general  stand  table  such  as 
that  given  in  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  from  this  it  appears  that 
the  following  stands  *  are  in  need  of  cutting  during  the  next 
ten  years: 


Compt. 
No. 


Sub- 
compt 
Letter. 


Area 
Acres. 


Stand 
Species  and  M.  ft.  b. 


Administrative  necessity 
Disease  and  decadence. . 


3.  Maturity. 


Total, 


61 

50 

100 

100 


Spruce 

900 

Fir 
Fir 
Fir 

100 

Spruce 
Spruce 

1 100 
440 

2440 

75 
60 

Spruce 

Fir 

235 

=  2675  M.  feet. 


*  The  selection    forest    n  compartments   3,5,  and  7  is  necessarily  omitted, 
since  it  obviously  requires  a  different  method  of  computing  the  cut. 


114 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 


The  distribution  of  the  age  classes  (see  age-class  table, 
Chapter  I,  Section  2)  shows  a  considerable  abnormahty,  as 
follows : 


Overmature 

Mature 

Young 

Restockable 

(160+) 

(81-160) 

(1-80) 

Blanks. 

Actual acres 

61 

246 

300 

103 

Normal 

355 

355 

Deficit 

109 

55 

Surplus 

61 



103 

The  rotation  is  160  years;  the  total  area  710  acres  exclusive 
of  natural  blanks,  and  the  protective  belt  of  selection  forest 
(see  foot-note  p.  113). 

Despite  the  abnormality,  the  annual  cutting  area  is  here 
calculated  for  the  sake  of  an  example,  e.g.,  by  method  No.  i, 

variation  I,  the  annual  cutting  area  =  — =  -^=4.43215  acres. 

r      160 

For  ten  years  =  44.3125  acres. 

The  cutting  for  the  next  ten  years  would,  therefore,  be  con- 
fined entirely  to  compartment  9^. 

But  where  stands  are  so  irregular  in  age  classes,  site  quality 
and  density  of  stocking,  it  is  not  well  to  resort  to  area  as  the 
regulating  factor,  but  rather  to  use  some  volume  method,  such 
as  Heyer's,  of  comparison  with  the  normal  growing  stock 
(method  No.  9). 

This  would  give: 

I  (increment)  =  5,840  M.  feet  of  spruce  X  (say) .007  =40,880  ft.b.m. 
970  M.  feet  of  fir         X  -01=   9,700  ft.b.m. 


Total,      50,58c  feet. 


y  =  i6o 

^z;  =  — =  4,046,400  feet  b.  m. 
2 

v=       6,810,000  feet  b.  m. 


2)>  vvu  hy  2,763,600  feet  b.  m. 


THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  115 

Let  X  (the  period  of  equalization)  =-  =  — -  =  40  years. 

4      4 
Then  by  the  formula: 

_ v-\-i  Xx  —  nv  _  6,810,000  + (50,580 X40)  —  4,046,400 
X  40 

=  119,670  feet  board  measure. 

The  annual  cut  therefore  equals  119,670  feet  board  measure. 

The  cut  for  the  decade  equals  1,196,700  feet  board  measure. 

There  is  within  compartments  gb,  10,  and  part  of  6  and  8 
ample  (2,675  M.  feet)  for  the  cutting  within  the  next  decade. 
Compartments  6  and  8  need  scarcely  be  touched,  which  is  just 
as  well,  since  they  are  barely  mature  now.  If,  however,  in  view 
of  the  proportionately  large  amount  of  mature  and  overmature 
timber  it  is  desired  to  reduce  the  period  of  distributing  the 
surplus  to  ten  years,  the  result  would  be: 

6,8io,ooo  +  (so,'58oX  10) —4,046,400         ^ 
— =326,940. 

The  annual  cut  therefore  equals  326,940  feet  board  measure. 

The  cut  for  the  decade  equals  3,269,400  feet  board  measure. 

There  are  within  compartments  9,  10,  6,  and  8  only  2,675,000 
feet,  hence  the  management  must  either  be  conservative  and 
content  itself  therewith  or  add  compartment  4,  with  945,000 
feet  to  the  cutting  areas  for  the  decade,  which  would  make 
3,620,000  feet  board  measure,  or  ample  whereon  to  draw  for 
the  3,269,400  feet  board  measure  to  be  cut. 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  method  is  without  doubt 
the  most  rational  of  all  the  methods  of  determining  the  cut; 
for  it  attempts  no  iron-clad  rule  or  framework — such  as  the 
"  period  methods  "  next  to  be  considered — but  depends  entirely 
on  the  silvicultural  and  economical  requirements  of  the  forest. 
By  means  of  frequent  revisions  the  amount  cut  can  never 
endanger  the  continuity  of  the  forest's  productiveness,  while  it 
allows  full  play  to  the  skill  of  the  ofificer  in  charge  of  the  manage- 
ment of  the  forest.     The  forest  moves  steadily  toward  a  normal 


116  THE    l-HEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

distribution  of  the  age  classes,  but  this  very  desirable  goal  is 
attained  without  undue  sacrifices. 

It  is  a  method  of  great  freedom  and  adaptability.  Freedom 
in  so  far  as  the  cutting  of  certain  stands  is  not  prescribed  far  in 
advance  for  a  certain  time,  but  entirely  according  to  the  exi- 
gencies of  the  situation.  It  is  adaptable  to  all  methods  of  high 
forest  which  result  in  even-aged  or  fairly  even-aged  stands, 
i.e.,  to  all  but  the  selection  system. 

The  method  in  its  simple  application  is  well  suited  to  Amer- 
ican conditions  where  it  is  often  of  prime  importance  to  dispose 
of  the  overmature  and  decadent  timber  within  the  reasonable 
check  of  a  sustained  volume  yield  aided  by  the  corrections  of 
decennial  redetermination  of  the  cut,  and  to  work  toward  the 
distant  goal  of  a  normal  age-class  distribution. 

17.  BY    AREA    AND    VOLUME.— BASED    ON    PERIODS    ("  FACH- 
WERKSMETHODEN  "  *). 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — The  rotation  is  divided  into  a 
number  of  equally  long  periods  of  time.  Usually  these  periods 
comprise  twenty  years.  Every  compartment  or  subcompart- 
ment  is  assigned  to  a  period  corresponding  with  its  age,  so  that 
each  part  of  the  entire  area  of  the  working  unit,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  certain  areas  reserved  for  selection  forest,  protec- 
tive belt,  or  other  special  purpose,  is  used  once  during  the 
rotation. 

The  sums  of  the  individual  periods  must  be  approximately 
equal,  or  somewhat  higher  for  the  later  periods.  If  this  is  not 
the  case,  adjustment  is  necessary,  by  transferring  certain 
stands  or  subcompartments  to  an  adjacent  period.  Accord- 
ing as  this  adjustment  emphasizes  equality  of  area,  or  equality 
of  volume,  or  equality  in  both,  different  kinds  of  period  methods 
are    recognized    as:     I.  Area-period    method    ("  Flachenfach- 

*  The  name  "  Fachwerksmethoden  "  comes  from  the  German  "  Facher  " 
or  pigeon-holes  into  which  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  are  placed  by  these 
methods.  A  "  Facherwerk  "  or  "  Fachwerk  "  is,  therefore,  a  framework  con- 
sisting of  many  pigeon-holes,  and  these  methods  are  "  Framework  "  methods. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  117 

werk");  II.  Volume-period  method  ("  Massenfachwerk  ") ; 
III.  Area-and- volume-period  method  ("  Kombiniertes  Fach- 
werk  "). 

I.  In  the  area-period  method  {"  Flachenfachwerk ")  the 
areas  are  assigned  to  various  periods  either  as  actual  areas  or 
as  reduced  areas  (see  method  No.  i  above)  of  equal  produc- 
tivity. The  method  aims  to  cut  each  year,  or  each  period,  an 
equally  productive  area  containing  an  approximately  equal  vol- 
ume. The  age-class  table  is  the  basis  of  the  assignment  to 
periods,  however  these  must  then  be  shifted  to  secure  equaUty 
of  utiHzation  in  each  period.  Knowing  the  area  to  be  cut  in 
the  first  (immediate)  period  and  (from  yield  tables  or  empirical 
measurements)  the  volume  yield  thereof,  the  annual  cut  is  found 
by  dividing  this  volume  by  the  number  of  years  in  the  period. 
This  volume  calculation  is  usually  confined  to  the  first  period. 
Final  cuttings  are  restricted  to  this  period. 

1 20 
In  a  rotation  of  120  years  there  are,  e.g.,  =  6  periods. 

20 

Were  the  age-class  distribution  normal,  the  periods  and  the  age 
limits  of  the  stands  comprised  therein  would  be  as  follows: 

I  Period Age  of  Stands  loo-i  20  years 

II  Period 80-100 

III  Period 60-80 

IV  Period 40-60 

V  Period 20-40 

VI  Period 0-20 

In  practice  this  method  is  restricted  to  simple,  regular  con- 
ditions with  artificial  reproduction  after  clearcutting. 

The  area  "  framework  "  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity  and 
ease  of  application.  Within  the  rotation,  if  no  unforeseen  dis- 
turbances occur,  the  normal  age-class  distribution  is  attained. 
But  the  method  has  the  great  disadvantage  that  no  due  regard 
is  paid  to  existing  conditions  (age-class  distribution,  growing 
stock,  increment).  In  the  case  of  an  overmature,  broken  stand 
more  should  be  cut  than  a  strict  period  method  permits;  in 
the  case  of  immature  stands,  less  should  be  cut  than  this  period 


118  THE   THEORY    AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS 

method  provides.  Equality  of  periods  is  secured,  often,  only  at 
a  tremendous  sacrifice. 

II.  In  the  volume-period  method  ("  Massenfachwerk  ")  the 
aim  is  to  have  an  equal  cut  in  each  period.  The  various  periods 
are,  therefore,  given  approximately  equal  volumes,  although  the 
younger  periods  are  sometimes  endowed  with  slightly  higher 
volumes  ("  Massen  ")  than  the  older  periods.  The  annual  cut 
is  found  by  dividing  the  volume  of  the  first  period  by  the  num- 
ber of  years  therein  (usually  twenty). 

The  individual  stands  (compartments  and  subcompart- 
ments)  are  assigned  to  the  periods  corresponding  to  their 
uge.  Their  volume  is  then  prorated  by  means  of  yield  tables 
or,  at  least,  increment  tables  so  as  to  determine  the  volume 
they  will  have  at  the  time  of  reaching  the  middle  of  the  I  period 
(i.e.,  the  cutting  period).  These  volumes  are  then  compared 
and  the  necessary  adjustments  made;  the  stands  are  shifted 
from  one  period  to  another,  e.g.,  if  the  II  period  were  deficient, 
the  IV  period  excessive,  some  stands  would  have  to  be  shifted 
from  the  IV  into  the  III  period,  and  from  this  into  the  II  period, 
until  the  proper  balance  was  secured.  Since  this  "  shifting  " 
carries  with  it  a  recalculation  of  the  final  yield  because  of  changed 
increment,  the  method  involves  an  enormous  amount  of  cal- 
culation. 

This  method  was  founded  by  G.  L.  Hartig  in  1795.  It  finds 
no  appHcation  in  practice  to-day. 

It  has  the  advantage  over  the  area  "  framework  "  of  cutting 
an  equal  volume  each  year,  and  hence  more  nearly  approaches 
the  desires  and  needs  of  timber  owner  and  timber  buyer.  But 
it  has  the  glaring  disadvantage  of  attempting  to  regulate  the 
cut  for  a  whole  rotation.  The  future  treatment  of  stands  must 
depend  on  eventuahties  which  cannot  be  foreseen  in  the  present. 
Nor  can  the  method  be. used  in  the  extensive,  irregular  condi- 
tions for  which  it  is  intended  because  of  the  lack  of  adequate 
volume  and  increment  data.  Furthermore,  an  equal  annual 
cut  may  disregard  overmature  stands  in  need  (financial  and  sil- 
vicultural)  of  cutting,  or,  conversely,  cut  stands  which  are  not 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  119 

yet  mature.  It  is  an  unnecessarily  narrow  concept  of  sustained 
yield;  it  does  not  even  secure  normality,  for  volume,  i.e.,  grow- 
ing stock,  alone  is  no  criterion  of  normality. 

III.  The  area-and-volume  period  method  ("  Kombiniertes 
Fachwerk  ")  aims  to  combine  the  area  "  framework  "  and  the 
volume  "  framework  "  so  that  each  period  will  contain  approx- 
imately equal  areas  and  volumes. 

Theoretically  this  distribution  of  volumes  is  for  the  whole 
rotation  and  is  achieved  for  the  I  period  by  means  of  volumetric 
surveys,  for  the  other  periods  by  means  of  yield  tables.  Areas 
and  volumes  are  then  adjusted  as  in  the  area  "  framework  " 
and  the  volume  "  framework."  The  annual  cut  is  then  obtained 
by  dividing  the  area  and  the  volume  of  the  I  period  by  the 
number  of  years  contained  therein  (usually  twenty)  and  let- 
ting the  two  factors  of  area  and  volume  act  as  a  mutual  check.* 

In  practice  the  difficulty  of  predicting  volumes  for  a  whole 
rotation  and  of  equalizing  volumes  and  areas,  led  to  an  im- 
portant modification  whereby  the  volumes  are  calculated  for 
only  the  I  period  or,  at  most,  the  I  and  II  periods;  the  areas, 
however,  dehneated,  roughly,  for  the  whole  rotation  so  as  to 
insure  a  sustained  yield. 

This  method  was  founded  by  Heinrich  Cotta  in  1804.  The 
important  modification  of  restricting  the  volumes  to  the  I  or 
I  and  II  periods  dates  from  von  Klipstein  in  1823  and  von 
Grebe  in  1867. 

This  method  possesses  the  combined  advantages  of  the  area 
and  the  volume  "  framework  ";  it  secures  a  greater  regularity 
of  volume  yield  than  does  the  former  and  a  quicker  approach 
toward  normahty  than  does  the  latter.  Combined  with  a  proper 
distribution  of  the  age  classes  and  a  liberal  interpretation  of 
equality  in  the  periods,  the  method  secures  good  results.     But 

*A  number  of  variations  have  been  suggested,  e.g.,  annual  cut  =  volume  of 
period-;- years  of  period  (Prussian  practice);  annual  cut  =  area  of  period -^ years 
of  period  (Auhagen);  annual  cut  =  area  of  (I  or  I  and  II)  periods-;- years  and 
reduced  to  volume  (von  Stockhausen  and  von  Grebe).  In  practice  both  factors 
are  regarded  as  local  conditions  demand. 


120  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

with  too  strict  construction  it  results  in  crass  errors,  such  as 
the  needless  leaving  of  overmature  stands  simply  because  they 
are  in  the  sacrosanct  II  period  and  can  not  be  touched,*  or  the 
cutting  of  immature  stands  which  were  placed  in  the  I  period 
merely  to  "  fill  in." 

(b)  Example. — Since,  from  what  has  gone  before  and  what 
follows  (c)  these  methods  are  so  obviously  unsuited  to  American 
conditions,  it  would  serve  no  useful  purpose  to  elaborate  them 
by  examples. t 

(c)  Value  of  Application. — In  most  of  the  German  States 
the  "  framework  "  methods  were  the  foundation  of  regulated 
management  and  thus  exerted  a  mighty  influence  on  German 
forestry.  But  under  the  conditions  of  modern  times  they 
have  steadily  diminished  in  importance  for  the  following 
reasons : 

(i)  The  silvicultural  method  of  management,  to  which  the 
method  of  regulating  the  cut  must  conform,  is  often  in  direct 
disagreement  with  the  "  framework  "  method.  The  latter 
demands  that  the  cutting  on  a  given  parcel  (e.g.,  compart- 
ment) be  completed  within  the  period  (twenty  years).  This 
is  often  impossible  without  silvicultural  mistakes  and  economic 
sacrifices.  The  natural  reproduction  of  many  species  requires 
more  than  an  arbitrary  period  of,  say,  twenty  years.  Even 
with  artificial  reproduction  there  are  often  unavoidable  and 
unforeseeable  events  which  make  complete  regeneration  im- 
possible within  the  period. 

(2)  The  concept  of  sustained  yield  which  endows  each  period 
with  an  equal  area  or  volume,  or  both,  is  unnecessarily  narrow. 
For  practical  purposes  it  suffices  that  the  area  or  volume,  or 

*  This  has  led  to  the  growing  demand  for  the  "  Opening  of  the  II  Period." 
t  These  may  be  found  in  Judeich's  or  Martin's  "  Forsteinrichtung,"  or  in 
Lorey's  "  Handbuch  der  Forstwissenschaft,"  2d  ed.,  Vol.  Ill,  pp.  411,  415,  and 
423,  or  in  Roth:  "  Forest  Regulation,"  pp.  142-145,  147-150,  who  gives,  what  he 
calls  the  "  Allotment  Methods,"  a  strong  endorsement,  despite  the  fact  that  most 
of  the  European  countries  have  outgrown  them.  This  endorsement  is  all  the 
more  strange  since  Roth  values  Dr.  Martin  so  highly  as  an  authority  and  Martin 
himself  repeatedly  declares  against  the  period  methods. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  121 

both,  of  the  next  working  period  be  in  reasonable  ratio  to  the 
total  area  or  volume,  or  both,  of  the  entire  working  unit. 
Modern  economic  conditions  have  greatly  changed  the  concept 
of  sustained  yield  and  often  demand  the  cutting  of  other  than 
the  exact  period  area;  the  zone  of  economic  influence  has 
extended  tremendously. 

(3)  Cutting  series  are  not  dependent  on  a  period  method; 
indeed  the  latter  often  resulted  in  cutting  series  of  excessive 
length. 

(4)  The  assignment  of  every  compartment  or  other  parcel 
of  the  forest  to  a  certain  period  presumes  a  certainty  of  judg- 
ment on  the  part  of  the  forest  organizer  amounting  to  pre- 
science. As  a  result  the  cumbersome  calculations  are  often 
valueless. 

(5)  These  calculations  of  cut  for  the  whole  rotation  in 
advance  are  the  more  unnecessary  since,  under  proper  admin- 
istration, there  are  frequent  revisions  of  the  working  plan  at 
regular  intervals. 

Taking  all  these  together,  it  is  a  just  cricitism  of  the  "  frame- 
work "  methods  to  say  that  they  are  too  hide-bound,  adapted 
only  to  even-aged  stands,  to  intensive  conditions,  and  to  methods 
of  clearcutting  with  artificial  reproduction.  The  reahzation 
of  this  has  brought  about  a  revulsion  from  these  methods. 
Most  of  the  German  States  have  definitively  abandoned  the 
"  framework  ";  in  others  it  still  persists,  but  without  any  weight 
on  the  determination  of  cut  for  future  periods  (see  Part  Two, 
Chapter  I). 

18.  BY  AREA  AND  VOLUME.— BASED  ON  PERIODS.     AMERICAN 
METHOD.* 

(a)  Description  of  Method. — Professor  Chapman  offers  this 
method  as  a  possible  standard  for  regulation  in  all  forests  whose 
increment  per  acre  and  age  classes  can  be  determined  and  as 

*  Adapted  from  "  Coordination  of  Growth  Studies,  Reconnaissance,  and 
Regulation  of  Yield  on  National  Forests,"  H.  H.  Chapman,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  For- 
esters,  Vol.  VIII,  No.  3,  pp.  317-326. 


122  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

such  it  has  been  termed  by  him  for  convenience  the  "  American  " 
method  of  regulation. 

Step  I.— The  forest  is  grouped  into  four  or  five  rough  age 
classes  such  as: 

1.  Decadent  (overmature) O 

2.  Mature  (mature) M 

3.  Young  merchantable  (young) Y 

4.  Immature  poles  (poles) P 

5.  Immature  sapHngs     (saplings) S 

6.  Seedhngs  (reproduction) R 

The  rotation  age  may  coincide  with  the  upper  limit  of 
class  3. 

Step  2. — Find  the  average  age  of  each  age  class  either  by 
area  or  by  volume  (as  described  under  method  8)  or  by  draw- 
ing a  curve  of  height  on  diameter  for  the  type,  and  thus  secur- 
ing a  type  volume  table  based  on  diameter  alone.  The  aver- 
age volume  of  the  trees  in  the  age  class  is  found  from  knowing 
the  total  volume  and  total  number  of  trees.  The  diameter, 
which  corresponds  to  this  average  volume,  is  taken  direct  from 
the  volume  table,  but  interpolated  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch. 
The  age  of  a  tree  of  this  diameter  is  found  from  the  growth 
curve  of  diameter  based  on  age,  prepared  on  a  similar  site 
by  analyzing  the  growth  on  stumps.  This  age  is  accepted  as 
the  average  age  of  the  class. 

Step  3. — The  volume  in  each  group,  or  age  class,  is  com- 
puted from  reconnaissance. 

Step  4. — From  the  yield  table  (which  may  be  constructed 
by  any  of  the  accepted  methods)  read  the  current  annual  in- 
crement per  cent  for  stands  of  each  age  class.  The  increment 
in  decadent  stands  (overmature)  may  be  a  minus  quantity. 

Step  5. — Plan  to  remove  the  volume  of  the  decadent  class 
within  a  given  period  (I)  corresponding  to  the  quantity  and  con- 
dition thereof,   the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  *    and  the 

*  The  presence  of  large  areas  of  immature  timber  of  good  size  should  permit 
the  more  rapid  cutting  of  the  older  stands. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  123 

possibility  of  heavy  cutting.  The  total  cut  for  the  period  will 
be  the  volume  of  the  decadent  class  plus  half  the  growth  (or 
minus  half  the  loss)  for  the  period  as  found  in  step  4.  The 
annual  cut  equals  the  cut  for  the  period  divided  by  the  number 
of  years. 

Step  6. — Plan  to  remove  the  volume  of  the  mature  class  in  a 
period  (II)  beginning  in  the  year  when  the  volume  of  decadent 
timber  is  exhausted  and  stretching  over  a  number  of  years 
according  to  its  acreage  and  volume.  The  total  cut  for  Period 
II  equals  present  volume  of  the  mature  class  plus  the  growth 
during  Period  I  plus  one  half  the  growth  (or  perhaps  minus 
one  half  the  loss)  during  Period  II. 

Step  7. — Treat  group  3  the  same  way,  remembering  that 
the  calculation  becomes  increasingly  uncertain  the  more  remote 
the   period. 

Step  8.- — Determine  for  groups  4,  5  and  6  the  per  cent  of 
total  area  occupied  and  assign  to  it  a  period  at  the  end  of  the 
rotation  equaling  this  per  cent  of  the  total  rotation. 

Step  p. — The  sum  of  the  periods  should  equal  the  number  of 
years  in  the  rotation,  since  before  the  expiration  of  the  full 
rotation  all  timber  now  growing,  from  seedlings  up,  will  pass  the 
exploitable  age. 

Step  lo. — Should  the  first  arbitrary  assignment  of  periods 
give  very  irregular  yields,  alter  the  lengths  of  the  periods  and 
recompute  the  yields,  until  the  desired  equalization  of  yield  is 
approximated. 

(b)  Example. — The  complete  figures  of  an  example  are  too 
extended  to  be  given  here;  however,  as  worked  out  by  the 
author  for  Western  yellow  pine  on  the  Coconino  National 
Forest  in  Arizona  in  1913,  this  method  gives,  for  an  area  of 
100,000  acres,  an  annual  cut  of  12,160  M.  feet  b.m.  or,  on  a 
basis  comparable  with  the  data  used  in  figuring  the  cut  by 
ether  methods,  of  4,053,333  feet  b.m.,  as  against  6202  M.  feet 
b.m.  by  Heyer's  formula  (No.  9),  and  5457  M,  feet  b.m.  by 
Hufnagl's  method  (No.  12,  Var.  II).  This  bespeaks  a  thor- 
ough conservativeness  of  regulation  by  the  American  method. 


124  THE   THEORY    AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(c)  Value  and  Application. — This  is  an  adaptation  of  Hartig's 
volume — period  method  (see  method  No.  17,  Var.  II)  but  greatly 
simplified.  Some  of  the  disadvantages  of  the  period  methods 
adhere  to  it,  but  it  has  the  following  substantial  advantages: 
The  commercial  factors  of  demand  and  markets,  as  well  as 
the  conditions  of  the  stand,  can  be  given  full  weight  in  fixing 
the  limits  of  the  annual  cut,  actual  increment  is  fully  recog- 
nized, and  sustained  yield  is  assured  by  recognition  of  the 
amount  and  relation  of  the  actual  age  classes. 

It  is  applicable  to  even-aged  forests  and  to  those  uneven- 
aged  by  groups  of  even  age.  It  is  not  suited  for  the  true  selec- 
tion forest  unless  a  satisfactory  yield  table,  based  on  age  and 
area,  can  be  made. 

REVIEW  OF  THE   METHODS   OF  DETERMINING  THE   CUT 

No  single  one  of  the  methods  described  above  will  be 
adapted  to  all  varieties  of  conditions.  The  choice  of  method 
depends:  i,  on  the  intensity  of  management  possible;  2,  the 
kind  of  forest,  and  3,  the  silvicultural  method  adopted.  In  the 
light  of  these  considerations,  the  methods  may  be  valued  as 
follows : 

Method  No.  i  is  chiefly  adapted  to  coppice  and  coppice 
with  standards.  It  is  also  useful  as  an  area  check  on  calculations 
by  volume  alone. 

Methods  Nos.  2  and  3  for  provisional  determination  of  the 
cut  under  rough  conditions,  and  as  a  check  on  other  methods. 

Method  No.  4  for  selection  forest. 

Methods  Nos.  5-9  {"  formula  methods  "):  Of  these  all  but 
No.  9  are  restricted  to  rough  calculations  in  irregular  stands 
and  as  checks  on  other  methods.  No.  9  (Heyer's  formula) 
finds  a  wide  application  in  uneven-aged,  virgin  stands  when 
supplemented  by  a  careful  cutting  plan. 

Method  No.  10  is  adapted  to  high  diameter  limits  and  long 
rotations. 

Method  No.  11  is  adapted  to  mixed  tropical  forests  where 
only  one  or  two  of  the  many  species  are  merchantable. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


125 


Method  No.  12  is  excellently  suited  for  irregular  and  over- 
mature selection  forests. 

Method  No.  13  is  restricted  to  very  intensive  conditions. 

Method  No.  14,  variations  I  and  III,  for  coppice  and  coppice 
with  standards,  Var.  II  for  intensive  conditions.  Chiefly  used 
as  area  check. 

Method  No.  15,  for  even-aged  stands  of  only  moderate 
regularity. 

Diagram  E 

DETERMINATION  OF  CUT  BY  18  DIFFERENT  METHODS 
BASED  ON   THE   SAME  PREMISES 


7,500 


g  6,500 


.5,000; 


c 

c 

) 

' 

f 

) 

< 

) 

'byv 

)lum( 

Ave 

( 

-of- 

rea  ^ 

1 

( 

r     1 

)    ( 

^ 

( 

' 

c 

) 

( 

( 

>    <■ 

b 

Method  Number  2 


Simple  form  onl;' 


9,    10     n     18ri3'ul4'"Uu"fl5Y'15Yi'-18 
Morrill 


Method  No.  i6,  the  ultima  ratio  of  fairly  regular,  even-aged 
stands. 

Method  No.  17,  the  strait-laced  period  method  of  Europe; 
not  adapted  to  American  conditions. 

Method  No.  18,  an  American  adaptation  of  the  period 
method  for  even-aged  stands  and  those  uneven-aged  by  groups 
of  even  age. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  calculate  the  annual  cut  by  a 
variety  of  methods  so  as  to  have  a  check  on  the  figures.     Both 


126  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

volume  and  area  should  be  figured  wherever  possible  in  order 
to  have  an  "  area  check."  * 

The  accompanying  diagram  (Diagram  E)  shows  the  rela- 
tive numerical  results  of  computing  the  cut  by  the  different 
methods,  using  the  same  data  as  premises. 

CORRELATION  OF  SILVICULTURAL  METHODS  AND  METHODS  OF 
DETERMINING  THE  CUT 

In  general  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  as  Roth  points  out  in 
his  "Forest  Regulation,"  page  159:  "Regulation  of  the  cut 
in  amount  is  very  important  in  development  of  any  forest 
property  to  prevent  unreasonable  overcutting  which  could  defer 
any  desired  regularity  of  income  for  a  long  time  and  bring 
permanent  injury  to  parts  of  a  forest.  But  it  is  not  as  important 
as  is  good  protection  and  silviculture  and  a  suitable  division 
of  the  forest,  for  these  together  with  any  degree  of  orderly 
sequence  of  cutting  will  in  themselves  work  in  the  direction 
of  regularity  and  will  in  all  forest  properties  largely  replace 
regulation  of  the  cut  in  time.f 

"But  in  the  present  beginning  stages  of  forestry,  such 
simple  and  satisfactory  procedure  is  not  possible.  More  than 
75  per  cent  of  our  large  forest  areas  are  not  even  accessible  and 
assigning  an  area  here  to  a  particular  time,  can  have  no  mean- 
ing. For  this  and  other  reasons  it  is  necessary  to  use  other 
methods." 


*  "  To  learn  what  the  condition  of  the  whole  forest  is  with  reference  to  con- 
tinuity of  the  determined  felling  budget,  the  average  age  of  the  entire  forest  is 


found  by  dividing  the  stock  by  the  increment  I  —  =  a  I-.     This  should  be  equal 

to  one-half  the  rotation;  if  it  turns  out  to  be  much  less,  it  may  be  an  indication  not 
to  cut  the  entire  increment  during  the  working  period,  or  vice  versa,  in  order  to 
come  nearer  to  normal  age."  Oberforstrat  Frey  in  "  Vereinfachung  des  Wald- 
ertragsregelungs-Verfahren,"  Allgemeine  Forst-  und  Jagd-Zeitung,  July,  1905, 
pp.  232-236. 

t  Cotta,  a  century  ago  said:  "  A  proper  division  of  area,  orderly  sequence  in 
cutting,  and  frequent  revisions  of  the  plan,  are  far  more  important  than  a  mere 
calculation  of  the  permissible  amount  of  timber  to  be  cut." 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  127 

1.  Selection  Method. — The  cutting  cycle — i.e.,  the  period 
of  return — is  of  more  real  importance  than  the  rotation.  The 
cutting  cycle,  in  turn,  depends  on  the  time  required  for  repro- 
duction and  on  the  growth. 

Regulation  must  be  simple  to  fit  the  extensive  conditions. 
Volume  with  an  area  check  is  suggested.     For  volume  use : 

Von  Mantel's  method  (No.  2)  or 
Swiss  method  (No.  4)  or  ■ 

Heyer's  method  (No.  9)  or 

Hufnagl's    diameter    class    method    (No.    12,    especially 
Var.  II). 

The    choice    of   methods    depends    on    the    available    data. 

Methods  4,  9,  and  12  may  often  be  employed  as  a  check  on  each 

^u         T-  1-1  total  area   _     , 

other.     For  area  check  use ^ -X  volume  per  acre  to 

cuttmg  cycle 

be  cut. 

2.  Shelterwood  Method. — In  its  strict  form,  this  leads  to 
even-aged  stands,  but  may  exhibit  quasi-cutting  cycles  if  the 
period  of  reproduction  is  long.  The  determination  of  the  age 
classes  is  important. 

In  the  former  case — even-aged  stands  with  rapid  reproduc- 
tion— regulation  can  be  by  volume  with  an  area  check  or  by 
volume  and  area.  For  volume  use  Heyer's  formula  (No.  9) 
or  even  Von  Mantel's  method  of  "  glorious  simplicity  "   (No. 

A      -n  total  area  ^^     ,  _  , 

2).     For   area   use  ^ X  volume   per   acre.     For  volume 

rotation 

and  area  use  Hufnagl's  method  based  on  age-classes  and  the  mean 

annual  increment  (No.  15)  or  Chapman's  "American  method  " 

(No.  18). 

The  distribution  of  age-classes,  actual  and  normal,  is  of 
great  value  in  judging  the  needs  and  the  progress  of  the  man- 
agement. 

If  the  period  of  reproduction  is  so  long  as  to  constitute  a 
quasi-cutting  cycle,  the  regulation  will  be  like  that  for  selec- 
tion method. 


128  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

3.  Clearcutting  and  Seed-tree  Methods. — These  invariably 
lead  to  even-aged  stands.  Regulation  can  be  by  area  with  a 
volume  check  or  by  volume  and  area.  The  distribution  of  age- 
classes  is  very  important. 

„  total  area^^     , 

For  area  use  . X  volume  per  acre. 

rotation 

For  volume  use  Heyer's  formula  (No.  9)  or  even  Von  Man- 
tel's method  (No.  2). 

For  volume  and  area  use  Hufnagl's  method  based  on  age 
classes  and  the  mean  annual  increment  (No.  15)  or  Chapman's 
"  American  method  "  (No.  18)  or,  where  conditions  are  suf- 
ficiently intensive,  Judeich's  Stand  method  (No.  16). 

4.  Coppice. — Use  area  or  area  and  volume. 
For  area  use  method  No.  i. 

For  area  and  volume  use  Hufnagl's  direct  method  (No.  14). 

5.  Coppice  with  Standards. — Coppice  regulated  as  above. 
Standards  regulated  similarly  except  that  the  rotation  of  the 
standards  is  a  multiple  of  the  coppice  rotation. 

In  all  cases,  if  possible,  the  cut  should  be  determined  by  more 
than  one  method  in  order  to  be  sure  of  the  results.  The  cut 
adopted  should  be  a  conservative  average  of  the  results  by  diferent 
methods."^ 

In  using  area  of  high  forest  as  a  means  of  determining  the 
cut  it  may  either  be  the  area  unreduced,  reduced,  or  based  on 
average  age;  according  as  the  data  warrant.  (See  method  i, 
variations  I,  II  and  III.) 


*  For  example,  in  the  accompanying  diagram,  the  cut,  figured  by  eighteen 
methods,  averages  4,914.66  board  feet.  The  cut  for  the  next  ten  years  would, 
therefore,  be  taken  as  not  to  exceed  50,000  M.  feet  board  measure. 


THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  129 

SECTION   TWO 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CUT 

To  make  the  actual  annual  cut  conform  directly  to  the 
cut  as  determined,  i.e.,  to  cut  yearly  the  exact  amount  speci- 
fied in  the  working  plan,  is  neither  possible  nor  desirable. 
Unforeseen  contingencies,  both  silvicultural  and  economic, 
often  necessitate  an  overcut  one  year,  an  undercut  the  following. 
If  the  working  plan  must  be  flexible  even  under  European 
conditions  which  allow  the  forester  to  decide  the  "  where  " 
and  "  when  "  of  cutting,  how  much  more  is  it  necessary  in 
America,  where  the  "  where  "  depends  on  profitable  acces- 
sibihty  and  the  "  when  "  on  market  conditions. 

It  therefore  suffices  entirely  to  keep  within  the  allowed  cut 
for  the  working  period  of  ten  or  twenty  years — the  period 
of  years  during  which  the  working  plan  is  intended  to  apply — 
and  to  make  no  attempt  to  cut  one-tenth  or  one-twentieth 
thereof  each  year.  In  other  words:  a  periodic  sustained  yield 
rather  than  an  exact  annual  sustained  yield  should  be  the 
aim. 

For  similar  reasons,  a  great  flexibihty  must  be  allowed  in 
the  selection  of  the  actual  cutting  areas.  The  working  plan 
properly  lists  certain  areas  to  be  cut  within  the  working  period 
of  ten  or  twenty  years — the  time  before  the  next  revision  of  the 
working  plan — but  these  cannot  be  rigidly  adhered  to,  cannot 
in  Europe,  and  much  less  so  in  America.  European  experience 
has  brought  about  a  great  liberality  in  this  regard — the  executive 
officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  is  given  freedom  of  choice  as  to 
what  areas  he  wishes  to  cut  each  year  of  the  working  period,* 
this  yearly  cutting  plan  is  viseed  and  approved  by  his  superior 
officers,  otherwise  he  has  carte  blanche  to  exercise  his  judgment. 

*  With  due  regard,  of  course,  to  supplying  local  needs  for  timber  and  to  a 
proper  distribution  of  classes  of  timber  so  as  to  keep  values  from  fluctuating 
and   to   provide   industries   dependent    on   the   forests   with    the    timber    they 


130  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

No  Other  course  is  possible  in  America,  where  conditions  are  far 
more  extensive.  The  working  plan  designates  certain  areas, 
certain  cutting  series  even;  beyond  this  it  cannot  go.  It  must 
help  and  not  hamper  the  managing  officer.  It  is  merely  a  frame 
within  which  he  exercises  his  individual  ingenuity. 

Selection  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 

The  conditions  which  govern  the  selection  of  stands  to  be 
cut  are:  market,  maturity,  damage  (insects,  fungi,  etc.),  wind- 
fall, fire,  and  the  like. 

Under  market  are  contained  all  the  manifold  considerations 
of  logging  accessibility,  of  profit  in  cutting  and  marketing, 
and  the  sizes  and  species  which  can  be  logged.  For  example, 
a  spruce  stand  on  top  of  an  isolated  mountain  Hke  Mt.  Graham 
in  Arizona  may  be  fully  mature  and  in  need  of  cutting,  but  unless 
there  are  adequate  logging  devices  which  can  market  the  tim- 
ber at  a  reasonable  profit,  it  is  useless  to  designate  this  as  the 
sole  cutting  area  of  the  next  working  period.  Similarly,  there 
may  be  large  amounts  of  fir  {ahies)  in  mixture  with  other  species 
such  as  spruce  and  Douglas  fir,  but  unless  the  fir  is  accepted  as 
lumber  and  as  ties  it  cannot  be  counted  on  the  same  basis  with 
the  other  species.  Finally,  where  material  below  a  certain 
diameter  cannot  be  marketed  at  a  profit  it  should  not  be  con- 
sidered a  part  of  the  cut  of  the  next  working  period.  In  other 
words,  the  cutting  plan  must  deal  first  with  actualities  con- 
fronting the  administrative  officer  and  put  hypothetical  utili- 
zation in  a  subordinate  place. 

Other  things  being  equal,  the  cutting  plan  provides  fqr  the 
logging  of  all  mature  and  overmature  stands,  i.e.,  such  as  have 
attained  or  passed  the  rotation  age.  If  the  forest  is  even-aged 
or  fairly  so,  these  stands  are  those  of  the  highest  age  class  or 
classes. 

Stands  which  show  damage  by  insects,  fungi,  etc.,  should 
usually  be  tut;  they  are  therefore  included  in  the  cutting  plan 
for  the  next  working  period. 

Stands  which  have  suffered  severe  windfall  must  often  be 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  131 

cut  speedily  so  as  to  prevent  further  damage.*  But,  further 
than  this,  the  lessons  of  past  windfall  must  be  applied  in  dis- 
tributing the  cut— e.g.,  to  remove  a  certain  stand  may  expose 
the  one  behind  it  and  subject  it  to  almost  certain  windfall. 
This  can  best  be  regulated  by  the  formation  of  cutting  series, 
described  below.  The  windfall  danger  varies,  of  course,  with 
species  and  character  of  stand,  with  soil  and  site,  and  with  the 
prevailing  wind  direction.  Spruce  is  exceedingly  subject  to 
windfall  and  often  requires  especial  precautions. 

Stands  damaged  by  fire  enough  to  necessitate  reproduction, 
but  not  enough  to  be  rendered  unmerchantable,  must  be  dis- 
posed of  speedily  before  further  deterioration. 

Mapping  of  Stands  to  be  Cut 

The  type  and  age-class  map  of  the  forest  is  of  the  greatest 
value  in  deciding  on  the  areas  to  be  included  in  the  cutting  plan 
for  the  working  period,  especially  when  supplemented  by  com- 
plete and  reliable  forest  descriptions  of  each  unit.  Referring 
to  Fig.  I,  and  presuming  that  it  is  possible  to  log  and  market 
where,  when,  and  what  one  wishes,  but  that  the  windfall  danger 
is  great,  making  many  "  points  of  attack  "  preferable  to  extensive 
consecutive  cutting  areas,  the  following  stands  would  be  chosen: 

4a,  7^,  and  8a  can  be  cut  without  in  the  least  endangering 
any  other  stands. 

6c,  however,  though  it  is  sixty-three  years  old,  cannot  be 
cut  before  the  larger,  but  only  sixty-year-old  6a,  because  this 
would  immediately  subject  6a  to  heavy  windfalls.  Hence  6e 
must  wait  until  6a  is  cut.  This  involves  a  balancing  of  whether 
it  is  the  more  desirable  to  cut  6a  and  6e  now  or  to  wait  until 
6a  is  fully  mature.  Other  things  being  equal,  6e  must  wait, 
since  it  is  the  smaller. 

The  stands  or  blocks  in  which  it  is  intended  to  cut  during 
the  coming  working  period  should  be  indicated  on  the  working 

*  In  the  spruce  stands  of  the  Black  Forest,  Germany,  it  is  not  uncommon 
to  have  most  of  the  annual  cut  taken  up  by  unexpected  windfalls.  (F.  Q., 
XI,  333) 


132  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

map  either  by  color,  or  shading,  or  symbol.  The  kind  of  cutting 
intended,  e.g.,  shelterwood,  can  also  be  indicated  by  using  the 
symbols  given  in  the  "  General  Stand  Table,"  Chapter  I, 
Section  2,  above. 

Cutting  Series 

When  one  cutting  area  is  purposely  joined  to  another  and 
this  to  a  third,  etc.,  they  form  a  cutting  series.  In  its  perfect 
form  it  is  a  silvicultural  unit,  usually  consisting  of  several 
compartments,  in  which  the  age  classes  are  arranged  so  that 
they  form  a  complete  series,  thereby  permitting  each  cutting 
series  to  be  handled  independently.  The  object  is  to  interrupt 
the  regular  sequence  of  the  age  classes  and  thereby  to  interrupt 
the  continuity  of  cutting  areas.  This  tends  to  reduce  the 
damage  due  to  windfall  and  insects.  (See  frontispiece  for 
illustration.)  Cutting  series  always  progress  from  some  initial 
"  point  of  attack  "  against  the  prevailing  wind  direction.  They 
are  shown  on  the  map  by  arrows.  The  formation  of  cutting 
series  is  a  tremendous  safeguard  against  windfall,  especially 
where  at  the  point  of  attack  a  wind-mantle  has  formed  on  the 
edge  of  the  stand  to  leeward.  This  mantle  consists  of  the  per- 
sisting middle  and  lower  branches  of  the  trees  on  the  edge  of  the 
stand.  It  is  artificially  stimulated  during  the  youth  of  the 
stand  by  the  cutting  through  of  compartment  lines,  or  forms 
naturally  along  a  road,  stream,  or  other  topographic  inter- 
ruption. It  can  also  be  created  by  heavy  thinning  along  the 
edge  of  a  stand  or  compartment  whereby  the  crowns  remain 
deep  and  hence  the  trees  windfirm*. 

Cutting  series  can  seldom  be  arranged  without  some  minor 
sacrifices.  For  example,  in  Fig.  i  the  small,  forty-eight-year 
old  stand  ^d  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  nearly  merchantable  seventy- 
two-year  old  stand  ye:  7^  would  be  sacrificed  to  the  cutting 
series,  the  lesser  good  to  the  greater.  Only  if  the  borders  of  7J 
had  been  liberated  so  as  to  form  a  mantle,  could  it  be  left  after 
7e  has  been  cut.  This  would  be  done  in  the  case  of  7/,  since 
it  is  a  much  younger  stand. 


GENERAL  STAND  TABLE,.. 

.  .  .  . 

1 

2 

8 

4 

6 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

18 

14 

DIVISION 

ARE.\ 

Cut  Over 

Area 

Even  Aged 

Uneven 
Aged 

Burnt 

Compt 
(No.) 

Sub- 
compt. 
(Itr.) 

Regulated 

Unregulated 

(name) 

Silvi- 

Average 

cult. 

Date 

Date 

Acres 

Area 

and  Age 
Limits 

Area 

Limits 

Area 

Method 
Date 
and% 

Area 

and 

Area 

and 

% 

Left 

Left 

Tecumseh 

I 
2 

3 
4 
5 

6 

7 
8 

•• 

104.27 
96. 

93-73 
106. 
99.20 

103. 

97. 

99-50 

104 
96 

106 
100 

100 

20-40 
60-80 

100-120 
140-160 

f      i-io 
[ 140-160 

94 
90 

80 

I-I50 
I-I50 

I-I50 

100 

Sh.  '02 

3 

1900 
clean 

•• 

40% 

9 

b 

40. 
61. 

40 
61 

41-60 
160-200 

■  ■ 

•• 

lO 

100.30 

(160-200) 

264 

50 

1895 
10% 
Culls. 

50 

1906 
None 

Totals.... 

1,000. 

607 

See  Col.  5 

53 

50 

C        =  Clear  cutting  (indicate  whether  artificial  or  natural  reproduction). 

C  sir  =  Clear  cutting  in  strips. 

C  g     =  Clear  cutting  in  groups. 

*  The  silvicultural  me 

thods 

C  ss    =  Clear  cutting  with  scattered  seed  trees.     (Seed  cree  method.) 

may  be  designated  b 

y  the  { 

Sh       =  Shelterwood  cutting. 

symbols: 

S        =  Selection  cutting. 

Sh-S  =  Shelterwood  selection  cutting. 

S-G    =  Group  selection  cutting. 

S-B    = 

=  Selec 

tion  borde 

r  cutt 

ng- 

I 

t  M.  =  thousand  feet,  board  measure. 


3.^KING  UNIT,  AREA ACRES 


<   16 

17 

18 

19 

SO 

SI 

SS 

S3 

S4 

S6 

S6 

S7 

28 

29 

STAND 

DESCRIPTION 

INCREMENT 

oiiuctive 

Stand  by  Species 

Pure, 
Mixed, 
Kind  of 
Mix- 
ture 

Den- 
sity of 
Stock- 
ing 

Site 
Qual- 
ity 

Young 
Growth 

suffi- 
cient to 

Re- 
stock? 

Remarks 

Curr.  Annual 

Species 
Spruce 

species 

Miscellaneous 
Hardwoods 

% 

Rea- 
sons 

M. 
t 

Cds. 

M. 

Cds. 

M. 

Cds. 

\'ol. 

Rock 
Pasture 

200 
400 
700 
900 
600 

1,100 

600 

440 

900 

25 
35 
30 
45 
300 

75 

300 

60 

100 

•• 

Birch 
Aspen 

80 
20 

F. 
P. 
P. 
P. 
M. 
singly 
P. 

M. 

singly 
P. 

P. 
P. 

M. 
Grps. 

I.O 

•9 

.8 
.8 
•7 

.6 

.8 

•3 

1.0 

•5 

.1 

I 
I-II 

IV 

II 

IV 

III 

III-IV 

III 

II-III 
II-III 

II 

Yes 
No 
Yes 
No 
Yes 

Half 

No 

Half 

No 
Yes 

No 

Thrifty 

Mature 

Grnd.  fire 

Mature 

Old  burns 
Decadent; 

fire  scars 
Bad  shape 

old  burn 

i-S 
X.7 
I. 
I. 

•5 
•7 
•5 

•3 
.2 

34  M. 

7.4  M. 
7.3  M. 
9-5  M. 
9.0  M. 

5-5  M. 
6.3  M. 

2.5  M. 

.8  cds. 
2.7  M. 

.2M. 

5.840 

••     '970 

•• 

•• 

100 

•• 

.... 

THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  133 

Cutting  series  must  be  decided  upon  by  the  forest  organizer 
during  the  progress  of  the  field  work  in  order  to  gauge  the  sac- 
rifices properly.  They  can  be  provisionally  entered  on  the 
working  map  by  using  dotted  arrows. 

Theoretically  the  cutting  series  are  like  steps,  actually  they 
are  always  somewhat  irregular  even  under  favorable  conditions. 
In  the  map,  ^d  and  //,  and  5^,  /,  g,  and  /  obviously  belong  to 
two  cutting  series.  But  5/  is  a  separate  proposition  because  it 
must  be  cut  before  5//  since  it  is  more  than  twice  as  old  {sh  = 
23  years,  5^  =  52  years). 

Cutting  series  must  be  planned  decades  in  advance,  and 
require  careful  thought  and  accurate  judgment.  The  cutting 
of  such  a  series  may  require  many  years;  early  mistakes  are 
difficult  to  correct. 

Cutting  series  are  most  necessary  in  even-aged  stands  of 
shallow-rooted  species,  and  there  they  are  of  tremendous  im- 
portance.* Their  regular  adoption  in  America  is  still  of  the 
future,  but  the  principle  can  be  utilized  now. 

Plan  of  Cutting 

Having  determined  "  how  much  "  and  "  where  "  to  cut 
during  the  ensuing  working  period,  this  is  reduced  to  a  docu- 
mentary plan  of  cutting  or  "  felling  budget." 

Two  kinds  of  cutting  plans  should  usually  be  drawn  up: 
I,  a  general  one  for.  the  entire  working  period — i.e.,  for  the 
number  of  years  during  which  the  working  plan  is  intended  to 
apply,  generally  ten  years;  and  II,  a  specific  plan  for  the 
ensuing  year. 

I.  The  general  cutting  plan  provides  cutting  areas  sufficient 
to  yield  (if  the  working  period  is  ten  years)  at  least  ten  times 
the  volume  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  or  ten  times  the  area, 
as  the  case  may  be.  It  should,  however,  provide  for  some- 
what more,  so  as  to  furnish  additional  cutting  areas  in  case  of 

*  By  this  means  windfall  is  checked  and  controlled  in  the  spruce  forests  of 
Saxony;  the  lack  of  cutting  series  is  largel>  accountable  for  the  tremendous 
windfall  in  the  spruce  stands  of  the  Black  Forest  in  Baden. 


134 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 


3-^ 


1 

Overmature.  Seed  cutting. 

Old  stock,  to  be  replanted. 

Mature.     Seed  cutting. 

Removal     cutting,    repro. 
complete.     6o  per  cent 
cut  in  1902  by  Sh. 

1 

u 

oi 

s. 

1 

D 
U 

w 
§ 

1 

3 
(2 

^^ 

0        10        fo        0 

u^     °°      r^      5, 

■a 

^ 

•       :       :       : 

S" 

.       :       :       : 

E 

L° 

:     ^     R     8 

:   : 

i 

:     ^     i^     S 

%  : 

4) 

^ 

5:58 

;   ": 

s 

! 

•0         «o        0         0 

rO      • 

160-200 
160-200 
140-160 
140-160 

0     • 

H    : 

3 
< 

I'll 

^        ^        ^        ^ 

xi       '.       :      '. 

On           0           \0           00 

ll 

! 

Tecums'h 
Tecums'h 
Tecums'h 
Tecums'h 

"O    o 


c/)^ 


^1 

^   o 
o  »i: 


4;  .a 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  135 

unforeseen  contingencies  making  the  cutting  of  certain  areas 
impractical  or  allowing  a  higher  cut  than  was  originally  intended. 
Under  fairly  regular  conditions  the  cutting  plan  may  cover  the 
next  twenty  years,  or  even  forty  years,  but  under  average  Amer- 
ican conditions  this  is  little  better  than  a  useless ''play.  Nor, 
under  most  American  conditions,  is  it  necessary  or  advisable 
to  prorate  the  increment  to  the  middle  of  the  cutting  period. 
Such  corrections  had  best  be  left  to  frequent  revisions  of  the 
working  plan  at  regular  intervals. 

The  general  cutting  plan  should  take  the  form  *  on  preced- 
ing page: 

II.  The  specific  cutting  plan  for  the  ensuing  year,  calendar 
or  fiscal,  is  drawn  up  by  the  administrative  officer  in  charge  of 
the  forest  and  submitted  by  him  to  his  superior  officers  (if  he 
has  any)  for  approval.  Thus  it  is  really  a  part  of  administration 
and  not  of  forest  organization,  yet  it  is  closely  linked  thereto. 
The  administrator,  through  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the  forest 
and  of  the  exact  status  of  local  conditions  of  logging,  market, 
etc.,  selects  from  out  the  general  cutting  plan  those  areas  which 
in  his  judgment  should  be  cut  during  the  ensuing  year.  On 
large  forests  he  usually  consults  each  ranger  on  the  subject. f 
A  convenient  form  for  the  annual  cutting  plan  is  as  follows: 
This  can  be  printed  or  otherwise  manifolded  and  serve  as  a 
permanent  record.     (See  next  page.) 

In  the  following  table,  column  4  contains  the  estimated 
volume  to  be  cut  during  the  year.  If  instead  of  compartment 
10,  compartment  96  had  been  chosen,  with  its  540  M.  of  spruce, 
the  value  in  column  4  would  have  been  set  as  directly  equal  the 
allowed  annual  cut,  or  120  M.  Column  5  is  always  the  volume 
actually  cut.  Column  6  is  merely  for  convenience  in  checking 
the  results  of  estimates  as  a  guide  to  their  accuracy.     When 


*  The  figures  are  taken  from  the  General  Stand  Table,  Chapter  I,  Section  2, 
above. 

t  In  Prussia  the  Oberforster  (supervisor)  calls  on  each  Forster  (ranger)  for 
an  annual  cutting  plan  for  his  district.  These  he  then  combines  for  the  whole 
forest. 


136 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 


P    ^ 


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. 

3 

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2 

. 

^ 

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THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  137 

column  4  contains  only  part  of  a  compartment,  column  6  must 
be  deferred  until  the  entire  compartment  has  been  cut  over. 

Where  conditions  are  sufficiently  intensive  the  table  may 
include  areas  as  well  as  volumes. 

Descriptions  and  further  explanations  can  always  be  added 
if  advisable  for  clearness. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  cutting  plan  proper  consists  only  o^ 
columns  i,  2,3,  and  4  and  the  comparison  of  column  4  wath  the 
allowed  annual  cut.  But  for  purposes  of  convenience  columns 
5  and  6  are  added,  thus  making  the  record  complete,  though 
they  cannot  be  filled  until  after  cutting  is  finished.  Based 
on  this  record,  the  cutting  plan  for  1913  is  computed.  Having 
saved  20  M.  in  19 12,  the  administrator  would  not  hesitate  to 
cut  120+20=  140  M.  in  1913.  Indeed,  considerable  leeway  is  cus- 
tomary in  this  respect,  so  as  not  to  tie  the  administrator's  hands.* 

At  the  end  of  the  decade,  if  that  is  the  working  period,  the 
annual  cutting  plan  sheets  are  added  up  and  the  results  com- 
pared with  the  general  cutting  plan;  they  then  serve  as  most 
valuable  data  for  the  revision  of  the  working  plan. 


SECTION  THREE 

REGULATION  IN  SPECIAL  CASES 

This  section  considers  the  methods  of  regulating  in  special 
cases,  such  as,  I  abnormal  forests,  II  transition  forests,  III 
wood-lots,  and  IV  turpentine  forests.  Much  of  what  has  gone 
before  will  apply  directly;  it  is  only  necessary  here  to  note  the 
exceptions  and  departures. 

I.  Regulation  of  Abnormal  Forests 

Strictly  speaking  all  forests  are  abnormal  which  do  not 
have  a  normal  growing  stock,  a  normal  increment,  and  a  normal 
distribution  of  the  age  classes.     But  in  current  usage  the  term 

*  In  Prussia  the  Oberforstcr  (supervisor)  may  exceed  the  allowed  cut  by 
10  per  cent  without  first  seeking  permission  from  his  superiors. 


138  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

"  abnormal  "  is  restricted  to  those  forests  which  show  strik- 
ing irregularities — e.g.,  a  very  sparse,  patchy  stocking,  or  a 
marked  excess  of  a  single-age  class.  In  the  former  case  the 
chief  aim  is  to  secure  a  good  stand.  In  the  latter  case  it  is 
sometimes  possible,  if  the  entire  stand  is  mature  or  past  maturity, 
to  cut  it  all  ofY  at  once,  invest  the  resulting  capital,  and  let  the 
interest  thereon  take  the  place  of  the  sustained  timber  yield. 

But  ordinarily  the  timber  owner  needs  timber  rather  than 
money  in  order  to  supply  his  saw-mills,  pulp-mills,  etc.  In 
the  case  of  the  government  it  is  obviously  the  correct  political 
economy  to  be  able  to  supply  without  undue  interruption  the 
necessary  raw  material  to  the  timber-using  industries  dependent 
on  the  national  or  state  forests.  Furthermore,  it  is  usually  to 
the  interest  of  the  private  owner  to  lumber  conservatively  and 
to  plan  for  a  second  cut  rather  than  to  slash  and  abandon.  By 
so  doing  he  may,  under  favorable  conditions,  reasonably  expect 
a  5  or  6  per  cent  return  upon  his  investment*  and,  if  the  short- 
age of  lumber  becomes  as  great  as  is  freely  predicted,  stumpage 
values  will  increase  prodigiously  and  profits  proportionately. 

Assuming,  therefore,  that  the  abnormal  forest  of  a  single  age 
class  is  not  to  be  exploited,  but  to  be  managed  with  a  liberal 
construction  of  sustained  yield,  the  regulation  is  as  follows: 

If  the  age  is  less  than  -  only  thinnings  are  possible. 

2 
T 

If  the  age  is  more  than  -  cutting  is  permissible,  usually  less 

2 

than  the  allowed  annual  cut  up  to  the  age  of  \r,  usually  more 
than  the  allowed  annual  cut  beyond  the  age  of  \r. 

The  object  is  to  replace  the  excess  of  slow-growing  mature 
and  overmature  stands  by  young,  thrifty  stands  of  rapid  incre- 


*  See  "  Possibilities  of  Private  Forest  Management  in  New  York  State,"  by 
C.  H.  Guise,  Cornell  University,  Bulletin  375.  See  also  "  The  Cost  of  Growing 
Timber  in  the  Pacific  Northwest."  etc.,  by  B.  P.  Kirkland,  Seattle,  Wash.,  1915, 
reprinted  from  the  University  of  Washington,  Forest  Club  Annual.  See  also 
Chapman:  "  Forest  Valuation,"  pp.  115-117,  for  excellent  statements  of  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  profits  in  private  versus  public  forestry. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  139 

ment.  This  reduction  of  excess  growing  stock  must  never  be 
brought  about  at  the  expense  of  glutting  the  timber  market 
and  forcing  down  prices.  In  America  the  silvicultural  needs 
must,  for  the  present  at  least,  be  subordinate  to  the  economic 
demands.  "  In  spite  of  the  loss  from  deterioration,  the  country 
as  a  whole  may  be  benefited  more  by  reserving  a  considerable 
portion  of  these  stands  against  the  time  of  critical  need  than  by 
cutting  them  off  too  rapidly,  under  present  market  conditions, 
in  order  to  put  the  growing  power  of  the  soil  to  work."  * 

II.  Regulation  of  Transition  Forests 

Forests  in  transition  from  high  forest  to  coppice  or,  which 
is  more  frequently  the  case,  from  coppice  to  high  forest,  or  from 
crude  selection  to  even-aged  forests,  require  special   regulation. 

The  transition  from  coppice  to  high  forest  involves  the 
replacing  of  sprouts  by  seedlings.  The  process  of  conversion 
is,  briefly,  as  follows:  Instead  of  cutting  the  coppice  at  the 
thirtieth  year  or  thereabouts,  as  is  usually  done,  it  is  allowed  to 
grow  until  the  sixtieth  year  or  thereabouts.  If  the  coppice 
does  not  already  contain  sufficient  seedling  trees  in  mixture, 
these  must  be  'supphed  artificially.  During  the  last  decades, 
it  is  necessary  to  free  the  crowns  of  the  seed-bearing  standards 
from  the  encroaching  coppice.  This  is  done  by  means  of  pre- 
paratory cuts  at  intervals  of  about  ten  years. 

When  the  coppice  is  about  sixty  years  old,  the  reproduction 
cutting  begins.  This  aims  to  open  up  the  stand  by  cutting 
most  of  the  coppice,  allowing  the  seed  from  the  standards  to 
regenerate  the  area.  The  reproduction  cutting  is  repeated  four 
or  five  times  at  intervals  of  about  five  years,  and  gradually 
changes  from  cuts  to  seed  up  the  area  (or  plant,  if  artificially) 
to  cuts  giving  light  to  seedlings  obtained,  and  at  last  to  final 

*  W.  B.  Greeley  in  "  National  Forest  Sales  on  the  Pacific  Coast,"  "  Proceed- 
ings of  the  Society  of  American  Foresters,"  Vol.  VII,  No.  i,  p.  46.  B.  P.  Kirk- 
land  takes  a  different  view  in  "  The  Need  of  Working  Plans  on  National  Forests 
and  the  Policies  which  should  be  Embodied  in  them,"  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Foresters, 
Vol.  X,  No.  4,  PP-  341-375- 


140  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

removal  cuttings.  The  last  two  cuts  (light  giving  and  final 
removal)  operate  not  only  in  the  coppice,  but  also  in  the  seed- 
bearing  standards  which  may  be  present  (coppice  with  stand- 
ards) . 

The  period  of  transition  is  thus  thirty  years'  additional 
coppice  plus  twenty  years  of  reproduction  cutting  if  the  coppice 
contains  standards;  otherwise  extensive  planting  is  necessary. 
The  transition  from  coppice  with  standards  to  high  forest  is 
cheaper  and  easier  than  is  the  transition  from  straight  coppice. 
Fifty  years  is  the  usual  transition  period,  or  about  one-fourth 
to  one-third  the  high-forest  rotation.  Even  by  planting  the 
seedlings  the  time  can  only  be  shortened  by  greatly  heightened 
annual  expense  unless  the  area  to  be  transformed  is  small. 
There  is  also  the  danger  of  creating  large  areas  of  even-aged 
stands  if  too  much  is  planted  each  year. 

The  forest  regulation  consists  of  a  general  cutting  plan 
for  the  whole  period  of  transition.  This  cutting  plan  desig- 
nates for  each  of  the  stages  of  transformation  the  approximate 
amount  to  be  cut  and  how  the  cut  is  to  be  conducted.  Where 
the  seedhngs  have  to  be  introduced  artificially,  this  must  be 
supplemented  by  a  careful  planting  plan,  showing  species,  kind 
of  stock,  spacing,  etc.,  and  the  amounts  and  areas  to  be  planted 
in  each  stage  of  the  transformation. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  sustained  yield  sufferj  temporarily 
because  of  the  cessation  of  coppice  yields  and  the  delay  in 
securing  high-forest  yields.  To  minimize  this  delay  it  is  often 
advisable  to  plant  species  of  fairly  rapid  growth  and  hence  low 
rotation  age,  such  as  chestnut,  ash,  pine,  European  larch,  etc. 

The  transition  from  selection  forest  to  even-aged  forest 
is  comparatively  simple,  but  requires  one  or  two  rotations. 
The  object  is  secured  by  a  change  in  the  silvicultural  method 
employed,  and  can  be  brought  about  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

The  quickest  and  most  useful  is  by  means  of  shelterwood- 
selection  cuttings,  whereby  the  period  of  reproduction,  that 
is,  the  space  of  time  required  for  the  renewal  of  the  stand, 
is  reduced  from  the  entire  rotation  to  thirty  to  fifty  years. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  141 

With  the  next  rotation  the  method  can  still  further  approach 
the  sheltenvood  system,  if  conditions  are  favorable,  and  the 
period  of  reproduction  reduced  to  from  ten  to  fifteen  years, 
resulting  in  virtually  even-aged  stands. 

Where  the  selection  forest  is  already  even-aged  in  groups, 
the  transition  can  take  advantage  of  this  by  emplo}ang  the  shel- 
terwood-group  method. 

The  forest  regulation  consists  in  modifying  the  general 
cutting  plan  to  meet  the  changed  conditions — i.e.,  a  high  cut 
during  the  reproduction  period  followed  by  a  cessation  of  cut- 
ting until  the  young  growth  is  merchantable,  instead  of  the  more 
frequently  recurring  cutting  cycles  of  the  selection  forest.  The 
general  cutting  plan  is  also  extended  so  as  to  cover  the  entire 
reproduction  period  (thirty  to  fifty  years)  instead  of  merely 
a  decade  or  so. 

III.  Regulation  of  Wood-lots 

Wood-lots  are  seldom  managed  by  a  technically  trained 
forester,  hence  the  prescribed  regulation  must  be  so  simple, 
clear,  and  direct  that  any  layman  can  carry  it  out.  The  owner 
of  the  wood-lot  is  interested  chiefly  in  having  a  sustained  yield. 
This  feature  should,  therefore,  be  emphasized  by  determining  the 
allowed  annual  and  periodic  cut  as  exactly  as  possible  by  area 
or  volume,  or  both.  This  should  be  incorporated  in  a  detailed 
general  cutting  plan  and  the  cutting  areas  for  the  next  working 
period  indicated  on  a  map  of  the  wood-lot. 

Where  frequent  revisions  are  possible,  the  prescriptions  can 
be  confined  to  the  next  decade  or  so,  but  where  frequent  revisions 
are  out  of  the  question  the  progress  of  management  should  be 
sketched  for  the  whole  rotation  as  a  guide  to  the  owner. 

The  regulation  of  cut  in  wood-lots  must  conform  primarily 
to  the  wishes  and  desires  of  the  owner,  but  it  can  usually  accom- 
plish these  without  the  waste  incident  to  haphazard  manage- 
ment, and  hence  it  is  of  the  greatest  value  to  draw  up  simple 
working  plans  even  for  small  wood-lots. 


142  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

rV.  Regulation  of  Turpentine  Forests 

The  imminent  dearth  of  timber  available  for  naval  stores  * 
emphasizes  the  urgent  necessity  of  abandoning  wasteful,  destruc- 
tive methods  of  turpentining  in  favor  of  a  more  conservative 
utilization  and  a  regulated  yield. 

The  field  data  necessary  for  the  regulation  of  the  turpentine 
yield  are,  besides  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  general  and 
local  turpentine  business: 

(i)  The  distribution  of  the  diameter  classes  on  each  manage- 
ment or  survey  unit.f  This  need  not  be  by  inch  classes,  but 
according  to  the  cupping  limits,  explained  below.  Strip  sur- 
veys, two  chains  wide,  are  excellent  for  this  purpose. 

(2)  The  local  turpentining  quality  of  each  stand,  gauged  by 
the  number  of  cups  per  acre. 

(3)  The  amount  and  character  of  young  growth  below  the 
minimum  turpentining  diameter  for  each  management  or  survey 
unit,  supplemented  by  detailed  figures  from  sample  areas  more 
carefully  measured,  i.e.,  calipered  instead  of  estimated  ocularly. 

(4)  The  board  measure  contents  of  stands.  The  cord-wood 
contents  of  undergrowth,  etc. 

(5)  The  silvical  characteristics — maturity,  height,  thrift- 
iness,  etc. 

(6)  Diameter  increment  tables  showing  time  required  to 
grow  from  one  diameter  class  to  the  next. 

For  conservative  turpentining,  the  use  of  a  system  of  cup- 
ping is  basic.  Scarcely  less  so  is  the  cupping  to  a  diameter 
Hmit — e.g.,  no  cups  on  trees  below  11  inches  in  diameter,  and 
never  more  than  three  cups  on  any  tree.  Furthermore,  in  order 
to  prolong  the  productivity  of  the  tree  and  minimize  the  injury, 
the  chipping  must  be  shallow  and  light. 

A  definite  rotation  must  be  adopted  for  the  working  of  the 

*  See  "  The  Naval  Stores  Industry,"  Bulletin  229,  new  series,  U.  S.  Dept.  of 
Agriculture. 

t  E.g.,  blocks,  compartments,  subcompartments,  or  townships,  sections, 
quarter-sections,  etc. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  143 

crops  * — e.g.,  by  shallow  and  light  chipping  the  first  faces  can 
be  chipped  for  three  years,  when  the  faces  will  be  about  45  to 
50  inches  in  height,  the  cups  being  moved  up  each  year.  Then 
the  faces  are  worked  with  a  "  puller,"  a  chipping  tool  with  a 
long  handle,  for  another  three  years,  which  makes  the  faces 
from  7  to  8  feet  high.  The  tree  is  then  allowed  to  recuperate 
for  three  years,  when  "  back  cups  "  are  placed  between  the  old 
faces  and  worked  for  three  years.  The  final  period  of  three 
years'  working  is  secured  from  the  high-face  back  cups.  Thus 
each  tree  is  worked  for  twelve  years,  extending  over  a  period  of 
fifteen.  When  the  trees  have  been  completely  worked,  they  are 
cut  for  saw-timber,  ties,  or  other  material. f  Certain  of  them 
are  left  as  seed  trees  if  that  form  of  reproduction  is  sought, 
or  else  the  seeding  is  from  the  side  by  the  clearcutting  strip 
method.  In  case  of  artificial  reproduction,  the  worked  and 
logged  area  is  seeded  or  planted.  When  the  young  growth 
has  reached  sufficient  size,  the  larger  trees  are  turpentined, 
and  thus  the  cycle  is  completed.  | 

*  A  "  crop  "  is  commonly  considered  as  containing  10,000  cups. 

t  The  turpentined  trees  of  France  are  highly  prized  in  England  as  mine  tim- 
bers. 

X  For  further  details,  see  "  The  Administration  of  a  National  Forest  for  Naval 
Stores,"  I.  F.  Eldredge,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Vol.  IX,  No.  3,  pp.  310-326. 


CHAPTER   III 
THE  WORKING-PLAN  DOCUMENT 

SECTION  ONE 

CONTENTS  AND  FORM 

The  working-plan  document  is  the  vehicle  for  recording 
the  saHent  features  of  a  forest  bearing  on  its  organization  and 
the  detailed  prescriptions  of  that  organization  for  the  next 
working  period.  Simphcity  and  brevity  are  the  key-notes.  The 
descriptive  portion  is  usually  confined  to  such  short  statements 
as  suffice  to  bring  to  the  trained  forester's  eye  the  picture  of 
the  forest  as  it  is  in  its  essentials,  but,  occasionally,  a  more 
detailed  description  is  warranted  so  as  to  make  the  plan  compre- 
hensible to  a  layman,  e.g.,  where  the  plan  is  to  be  executed  by  a 
layman-owner. 

In  the  interests  of  clearness  and  brevity  data  should  be 
tabulated  wherever  possible,  e.g.,  estimates,  stand  tables,  age- 
class  tables,  etc.  Maps,  also,  are  a  powerful  aid  in  graphic 
presentation  of  the  data. 

The  working-plan  document  may  be  confined  to  the  silvi- 
cultural  management,  or  it  may  cover  all  the  activities  of  a 
forest  such  as  general  administration,  grazing  management, 
permanent  improvements,  forest  protection,  and  use  of  forest 
land;  in  other  words,  be  a  complete  forest  plan.  The  desir- 
ability of  including  these  sundry  subjects  depends  on  their 
importance  and  the  purpose  of  the  plan.  National  forests 
usually  require  complete  plans.  Where  other  subjects  than  that 
of  silvicultural  management  are  to  be  included,  the  descriptive 
data  preceding  the  plan  proper  must  be  amplified  accordingly. 

The  essential  contents  of  a  working  plan  confined  to  silvi- 
144 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  145 

cultural  management  are  (i)  Orientation,  i.e.,  location,  size, 
history  of  forest  with  important  changes,  salient  physiographic, 
social,  and  industrial  features,  time,  method,  and  personnel  of 
forest  survey  and  work  of  organization,  period  for  which  made 
(working  period),  digest  of  working-plan  conference,  if  had; 
(2)  Foundation,  i.e.,  growing  stock  (estimates)  and  increment, 
and  (if  even-aged)  distribution  of  the  age  classes,  stand  and  stock 
tables,  maps,  forest  description,  division  of  area;  (3)  Recom- 
mendation: method  of  management,  past,  present,  and  pro- 
posed, i.e.,  governing  conditions,  object  of  management,  silvi- 
cultural  method,  rotation,  etc.;  (4)  Regulation,  i.e.,  deter- 
mination and  distribution  of  the  allowable  cut,  general  and 
annual  cutting  plan,  corresponding  general  and  annual  planting 
plans. 

These  essentials  may  be  presented  in  various  forms,  some 
of  which  are  given  in  the  following  section,  varying  with  the 
needs  and  desires  of  the  administrative  officers.  The  form  of 
the  working-plan  document  is  comparatively  unimportant. 
It  may  be  typewritten  or  not,  bound  or  unbound.  If  type- 
written it  can  be  manifolded  more  easily;  if  plainly  bound  it 
resists  handling  better,  and  the  working-plan  document  is 
meant  to  be  used  constantly,  not  put  away  on  a  library  shelf 
for  the  admiration  of  visitors.  To  facilitate  this  use  a  2-inch 
margin  should  be  left  at  the  side  of  the  text  throughout  the 
document,  excepting  tables,  for  the  purpose  of  allowing  notes 
to  be  made  from  time  to  time  by  officers  charged  with  the 
execution  of  the  plan.  This  simple  device  keeps  a  plan  alive 
and  up  to  date  and  greatly  facilitates  the  work  of  revision. 

The  field  work  in  connection  with  forest  organization  often 
results  in  the  collection  of  many  interesting  and  valuable  silvi- 
cal  and  other  data  which,  while  germane  to  the  working  plan, 
are  not  a  cognate  part  thereof.  Such  data,  including  volume 
growth,  and  yield  tables,  silvical  notes,  notes  on  climate, 
geology,  soil,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  the  appendix  or  else- 
where convenient,  in  order  that  everything  in  the  plan  may 
be  confined  to  the  actual  scheme  of  management  for  the  forest. 


146  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

I.  Orientation 

(a)  Location  and  Size. — The  briefest  mention  suffices. 

(b)  History  of  Forest  with  Important  Changes. — Past  and 
present  ownership  and  administration,  boundaries,  past  object 
of  management,  past  revenues  and  expenditures. 

(c)  Physiographic  Features. — The  physiographic  features 
include  topography,  drainage,  geology,  soils,  and  climate. 
Detailed  observations  and  statistics  should  be  reserved  for  the 
appendix,  and  only  the  salient  characteristics  which  influence 
the  forest  organization  stated  briefly. 

(d)  Social  and  Industrial  Features. — The  social  and  indus- 
trial features  include  population,  labor  supply,  local  industries 
such  as  lumbering,  grazing,  mining,  agriculture,  etc.,  all  in  their 
bearing  on  the  problems  of  forest  organization.  For  it  is  evident 
that  without  adequate  labor  no  forest  resources  can  be  developed, 
without  lumbering  facilities  no  regulation  of  the  cut  can  be 
maintained  or  executed,  and  the  very  term  "  accessible  "  is 
modij&ed  by  the  degree  of  skill  exercised  in  logging  and  the 
kinds  of  appliances  used  to  get  the  timber.  Again,  the  need 
of  the  local  population  for  timber  is  the  root  of  the  theory  of 
sustained  yield.  These  fundamental  phases  require  no  detailed 
discussion,  but  brief  statements  of  conditions  in  explanation  of 
the  plan  proper. 

(e)  Digest  of  Working  Plan  Conference. — If  a  conference 
was  had  between  the  forest  organizer  and  the  owner  or  admin- 
istrator of  the  forest,  as  suggested  in  Chapter  I,  Section  i,  this 
should  be  digested  and  added  to  the  working-plan  document 
with  the  names  of  the  participants. 

(f)  Time,  Method,  and  Personnel  of  Forest  Survey  and 
Organization. — These  statements  should  be  exceedingly  brief — • 
a  tabular  form  is  advisable  for  time  and  personnel,  since  they 
are  of  purely  historical  interest.  The  method  used  should, 
however,  be  set  forth  in  sufficient  detail  so  that  there  can  be 
no  question  as  to  how  much  weight  attaches  to  the  accuracy  of 
maps  and  estimates. 


the  theory  and  practice  of  working  plans       147 

2.  Foundation 

(a)  Growing  Stock  (Estimates). — The  estimates  should  be 
in  form  of  a  table  by  species  and  classes  of  timber,  either  separate 
stand  and  stock  tables  or  as  part  of  the  general  stand  table.  The 
details  of  this  estimate  table  depend  on  the  intensity  of  the  entire 
plan.  It  will  usually  suffice  to  give  the  totals  by  compartments 
(if  any)  and  blocks,  or  else  by  survey  units  such  as  sections,  or 
even  townships.  Separate  estimates  may  be  given  for  each 
forest  type.  The  estimate  for  the  entire  working  unit  must 
always  be  given.  It  must  also  be  stated  to  what  minimum 
diameter  trees  were  estimated,  and  if  available,  what  average 
deduction  must  be  made  for  defect.  Estimates  in  greater 
detail,  e.g.,  section  sheets  showing  the  stand  on  each  "  forty," 
should  be  reserved  for  the  appendix  or  for  the  files.  Volume 
tables  should  be  placed  in  the  appendix. 

(b)  Increment. — The  increment,  either  current  or  mean 
annual,  or  else  both,  is  given,  and  is  expressed  either  in  incre- 
ment per  acre  or  as  a  per  cent  or  both.  Growth  and  yield 
tables  on  which  the  calculation  of  increment  may  be  based 
should  be  included  in  the  appendix. 

(c)  Distribution  of  the  Age  Classes. — If  the  stand  is  even- 
aged  or  approximately  so,  a  table  of  age-class  distribution,  hke 
the  example  already  given,  should  be  included.  Not  only  does 
such  a  table  show  at  a  glance  the  relation  of  young,  mature, 
and  overmature  timber,  but,  in  the  revisions  of  the  working 
plan,  it  shows  by  means  of  graphs  or  blocks  what  progress  has 
been  made  toward  the  attainment  of  normality  in  this  direction. 

(d)  General  Stand  Table. — A  table  approximating,  as  far 
as  possible,  the  example  in  Chapter  I,  Section  2,  should  be 
included  as  a  convenient  tabular  summary  of  areas,  volumes, 
and  conditions  of  timber. 

(e)  Maps  can  be  elaborated  to  almost  any  extent  according 
to  the  kind  and  importance  of  the  data  to  be  shown  thereon. 
The  foliowdng  are  the  most  important: 

'ij)  A   topographic   map   showing   topography   in   contours, 


148  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

seldom  hachures;  roads,  trails,  railroads,  saw-mills,  and  all  other 
"  culture  ";  drainage.  This  map  is  the  "  base  "  and  should  be 
of  a  convenient  scale,  such  as  ^,  i,  2,  4,  or  even  more  inches 
to  the  mile,  depending  on  the  size  of  the  tract  and  the  amount 
of  detail  to  be  shown.  It  should  be  drawn  so  as  to  permit  of 
being  manifolded  in  order  that  all  officers  charged  with  the 
administration  of  the  forest  and  the  execution  of  the  working 
plan  may  be  furnished  with  copies.  On  this  "  base  "  can  be 
added  any  or  all  of  the  following  special  data  in  so  far  as  the 
wealth  of  detail  will  not  confuse  the  whole. 
"  (2)  Boundary  map  showing  the  ownership  (status),  the 
/obrest  boundary  or  boundaries;    survey  lines,  if  any;   boundary 

/  or  boundaries  of  the  working  units,  blocks,  compartments,  and 

y  subcoppartments. 

\\    i/^  Forest-type    map,    showing    the    various    forest    types, 
also  cut-over  areas,  burns,  open  "  parks,"  etc. 

(4)  Age-class  map,  showing  the  distribution  of  the  various 
age  classes  on  the  ground. 

(5)  Site-quality  map,  showing  the  distribution  of  the  various 
site  ortklities. 

'^6)  Soil  map,  showing  the  various  soils  and  geologic  forma- 
tions of  the  forest. 

(7)  Reproduction  map,  showing  areas  of  good,  fair,  and  poor 
reproduction. 

l/\^)  Cutting  map,  to  accompany  the  general  cutting  plan, 
showing  areas  to  be  cut  over  within  the  next  working  period, 
also  those  already  cut  over. 

(9)  Planting  map,  to  accompany  the  general  planting  plan, 
showii-g  areas  to  be  restocked  artificially  during  the  next 
working  period,  and  areas  already  planted  or  sown,  all  nur- 
series and  proposed  nursery  sites. 

If  the  plan  is  to  be  a  complete  forest  plan,  and  not  confined 
to  the  silvicultural  management,  there  may  be  the  following 
additional  maps: 

(10)  Fire  map,  to  accompany  the  fire  plan,  showing  all  look- 
out points,  watch  towers,  lines  of  patrol,  ranger  headquarters, 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE  OF   WORKING  PLANS  149 

fire-guard  stations,  location  of  fire-fighting  tools,  and  places 
whence  assistance  in  fighting  fire  may  be  obtained.  The  base 
should  be  maps  i  and  3  combined. 

(11)  Permanent  improvement  map,  to  accompany  the  per- 
manent improvement  plan  showing  all  improvements,  existing 
or  proposed,  such  as  ranger  stations,  fire  cabins,  telephone 
lines,  etc. 

(12)  Grazing  map,  to  accompany  the  grazing  plan  showing 
the  grazing  types,  condition  of  the  range,  the  portions  grazed 
(and  by  what  class  of  stock)  or  ungrazed,  the  winter,  summei, 
or  year-long  range,  corrals,  pastures,  drift  fences,  water  tanks, 
etc. 

Lest  too  many  data  be  placed  on  one  map,  it  is  better  to 
have  separate  maps  than  to  combine  too  much  and  cause  con- 
fusion. For  ordinary  purposes,  however,  the  following  maps 
may  well  be  combined : 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  and  4.  Topography,  boundaries,  types,  age- 
classes.* 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  7,  and  8.  Topography,  boundaries,  types, 
reproduction,  cutting. 

Nos.  I,  2,  3,  and  9.  Topography,  boundaries,  t>'pes,  plant- 
ing. 

Various  methods  of  regulating  the  cut  require  special  data 
on  the  map,  e.g.,  if  the  regulation  is  to  be  by  area  reduced  accord- 
ing to  site  classes  (method  No.  i,  variation  II;  method  No.  14, 
variation  II;  method  No.  16,  variation  II,  also  method  No.  17, 
Nos.  I  and  III),  then  a  site-class  map  (No.  5)  is  necessary. 

Detailed  maps  of  survey  units  or  of  small  areas  which  it  is 
desired  to  show  in  greater  detail  should  be  placed  in  the  appen- 
dix, as  should  also  special  maps  showing  areas  of  insect  or 
fungus  attacks,  etc. 

(f)  Forest  Description.— jMust  be  concise  and  free  from 
burdensome  details.  Silvical  details,  methods  and  costs  of 
logging  and  milling,  etc.,  had  better  be"  placed  in  the  appendix 

*  If  even-aged  or  appro.Kimately  SO. 


150  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

or  in  a  special  file.  The  forest  description  of  the  entire  working 
unit  should  be  a  careful  summary  of  the  description  for  each 
block.*  The  aim  is  to  present  a  lucid  picture  of  the  forest  as 
it  is  in  the  essential  silvical  factors  bearing  on  the  plan  of  man- 
agement adopted.  The  description  must  be  ample  reason  for 
the  provisions  of  the  working  plan.  The  description  is  the 
premise;  the  recommended  management  the  logical  deduction 
from  that  premise. 

(g)  Division  of  Area. — On  the  basis  of  the  forest  description, 
the  division  of  area  should  be  so  evidently  logical  as  to  require 
very  little  special  justification.  However,  it  is  well  to  explain 
briefly  what  considerations  governed  in  the  choice  of  working 
unit,  block,  compartment,  and  subcompartment,  in  so  far  as 
this  was  not  already  covered  in  the  digest  of  the  working-plan 
conference.  Since  the  working  unit  usually  has  a  sustained 
yield,  its  adequacy  from  this  viewpoint  should  be  considered 
along  the  broad  lines  already  laid  down. 

3.  Recommendation 

The  recommended  management  should  be  the  logical  sequel 
of  the  data  given  under  "  Orientation  "  and  "  Foundation." 
The  basic  considerations  of  object  of  management,  of  silvi- 
cultural  method  of  management,  and  of  rotation  are  con- 
tained in  Chapter  I,  Section  3.  This  part  of  the  working- 
plan  document  should  review  the  governing  conditions  which 
determine  the  recommended  management.  These  are: 
[  (a)  Object  of  Management. — i.e.,  the  wishes  and  purpose 
of  the  owner  (in  so  far  as  not  already  contained  in  the  digest 
of  the  working-plan  conference). 

(b)  Practical  Restrictions  of  market,  logging  accessibility, 
fire  danger,  erosion  danger,  etc. 

(c)  Silvicultural  Method  of  Management  which  can  best 
fulfill  the  object  of  management  with  the  given  silvical  conditions 

*  A  good  example  of  such  a  forest  description  will  be  found  in  Bulletin  11  of 
the  N.  Y.  State  Conservation  Commission,  "  Forest  Survey  of  a  Parcel  of  State 
Land,"  Albany,  191 5. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  151 

and  under  the  practical  restrictions  imposed.  Past  manage- 
ment and  its  mistakes  and  lessons  should  be  reviewed  and  the 
proposed  method  of  management  given  in  detail.  The  best 
silviculture  is  not  always  possible  under  existing  conditions, 
and  the  organizer  must  seek  to  combine  the  three  divergent 
factors  of  object  of  management,  practical  restrictions,  and 
silvical  requirements  into  a  harmonious  scheme  of  management. 
This  should  cover: 

(i)  SilvicuUiiral  method  for  each  type  with  brief  description 
thereof. 

(2)  Rotation  chosen,  with  reasons  for  its  adoption.  The 
period  of  reproduction,  cutting  cycles,  etc.,  should  be  given 
and  made  entirely  clear. 

(3)  Marking  rules  to  be  followed  in  the  execution  of  the 
cuttings  for  natural  reproduction.  They  should  be  clear  and 
concise,  simply  put  so  as  to  be  readily  intelligible  to  the  non- 
technical man  charged  with  their  execution,  sufficiently  elastic 
to  cover  all  cases.  Good  marking  rules  will  do  much  toward 
insuring  the  actual  execution  of  the  silvicultural  method  decided 
upon,  especially  when  backed  by  sample  areas  marked  by  the 
forest  organizer  as  a  concrete  illustration. 

(4)  Brush  disposal  rules  are  a  necessary  concomitant  of  the 
marking  rules.  Here  too  actual  examples  of  what  is  desired 
should  reinforce  the  written  rules. 

4.  Regulation 

As  the  recommended  management  (3)  is  the  logical  out- 
growth of  the  data  given  under  Orientation  (i)  and  Foundation 
(2),  so  the  regulation  of  the  cut  itself  is  but  the  carrying  out  of 
the  Recommendation  (3). 

The  chief  phases  of  regulation  are : 

(a)  Determination  of  the  Allowable  Cut  by  one  or  more  of 
the  methods  already  described.  Where  working  groups  are 
formed,  each  requires  a  separate  determination  of  the  cut. 

(b)  Distribution  of  the  Allowable  Cut. — Selection  of  stands  to 
be  cut,  formation  of  cutting  series,  etc.,  with  concise  reason  for 


152  THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

the  choice;  cutting  pohcy  in  so  far  as  not  covered  already  in  the 
digest  of  the  working-plan  conference. 

(c)  General  Cutting  Plan  for  the  next  working  period  accord- 
ing to  the  example  given  above.  It  should  contain  in  addition 
recommendations  in  regard  to  stumpage  rates,  methods  of  log- 
ging, rules  of  cutting  to  prevent  waste,  and  other  features  of 
practical  utilization  such  as  probable  purchasers,  uses  and  mar- 
kets, etc.  An  annual  cutting  plan  for  the  ensuing  year  is  usually 
drawn  up  by  the  administrative  officer  in  charge  of  the  forest, 
and  does  not  as  a  rule  form  a  part  of  the  working-plan  document. 

(d)  General  Planting  Plan  for  the  next  working  period 
according  to  the  example  given  below.  A  description  of  the 
methods  and  cost  of  nursery,  planting,  and  seeding  practice 
to  be  employed.  An  annual  planting  plan  for  the  ensuing 
year  is  usually  drawn  up  by  the  administrative  officer  in  charge 
of  the  forest,  and  does  not,  as  a  rule,  form  a  part  of  the  working- 
plan  document. 

Note. — In  addition  to  the  general  working  plan,  annual  or  periodic  plans 
may  be  based  on  the  general  working  plan  and  may  refer  to  any  specified  class 
of  work,  as  the  annual  cutting,  planting,  protection,  grazing  or  administration  and 
improvement  plan.  Such  annual  plans  may  be  either  mere  schedules  or  may  con- 
tain more  or  less  detail,  explanations,  estimates  of  cost  and  results,  as  seems 
desirable. 


SECTION  TWO 

OUTLINES  FOR  WORKING  PLAN 

Three  typical  outlines  for  working-plan  documents  will  be 
given.  A.  The  Prussian  outline,  typical  of  forest  organization 
in  countries  based  on  forest-rerit.*  B.  The  Saxon  outline, 
typical  of  forest  organization  in  countries  based  on  soil-rent,* 
and,  C,  an  outline  typical  for  the  average  extensive  conditions 
existing  in  America.  This  last  includes  all  the  phases  of  a  com- 
plete forest  plan. 

*  See  "  Rotation,"  p.  6i. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  153 


A.  Prussian  Outline 

Introduction— Working    period     (two    decades).     Revision 
(every  decade).     Name  of  forest  organizer  and  assistants. 

1.  Letter  of  minister  (secretary)  putting  plan  into  effect. 

2.  Plan  of  management. 

Digest  of  working-plan  conference. 
Introduction.     Time  and  scope  of  work. 
General  position  and  history  of  the  forest. 
The  measurements. 

a.  Maps. 

(i)  Special  maps  (large  scale). 

(2)  Location  map  (small  scale). 

(3)  Map  of  servitudes. 

b.  Record  of  measurements. 

(4)  Boundaries. 

(5)  Table  of  measurements  (survey  notes). 

(6)  Record  of  changes  in  area. 

(7)  Record  of  changes  in  servitude. 
Division  of  area. 

(8)  Ranger  districts  and  blocks. 

(9)  Compartments. 

(10)  Subcompartments. 
Condition  of  stand. 

(11)  Site. 

(a)  Exposure. 

(b)  Soil. 

(12)  Stand. 

(a)  Species. 

(6)   Distribution  of  the  age  classes. 

(13)  Injuries. 
(a)  Fire. 

{b)  Storm  (wind). 

(c)  Frost. 

(d)  Drought. 


154  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

(e)    Fungus. 
(/)  Insects. 

(14)  Market  conditions. 

(15)  Labor  conditions. 

(16)  Servitudes. 

Regulation  of  cut  and  plan  of  management. 

(17)  Former  management. 

(18)  Basis  of  present  regulation  of  cut. 
(a)  Rotation. 

lb)  Plan  of  cut. 

(c)   Calculation  of  cut. 

(19)  Method  of  cutting. 

(20)  Method  of  reproduction. 
Miscellaneous. 

(21)  Financial  yield. 

(22)  By-products. 

(23)  Hunting  and  fishing. 

(24)  Forest  protection  and  policing. 

(25)  Fiscal  matters. 

(26)  Communal  relations,  i.e.,  with  communally-owned 

forests. 

(27)  Other  matters  of  interest. 

3.  Boundary  register  (status  records). 

4.  General  stand  tables. 

5.  Area  tables. 

6.  Table  of  servitudes. 

7.  Plan  of  thinnings. 

8.  Resume  of  communal  conditions. 

B.  Saxon  Outline 

Part   One.     Introduction.     Working   period    (one   decade). 
Revision  (every  five  years). 

General  stand  tables  (areas  and  volumes). 
Site-quality  *  table  and  comparison  of  increments. 

*  "  Standorts  bonitat." 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  155 

Comparison  of  age  classes  and  volume  (growing  stock). 
Table  of  age-class  distribution  in  per  cents  and  area.* 
Stand-quality  table. f 
Results  of  past  management, 
(i)  Final  cuttings. 

(2)  Intermediate  cuttings. 

(3)  Total  yield. 

(4)  Yield  by  cutting  areas. 

(5)  Money  yield  from  cuttings. 

(6)  Plantations,  also  care  of  plantations   and  of  the 

stand. 

(7)  Road  and  trail  building. 

(8)  Summary  of  net  soil  rent  (Boden  reinertrag). 
Determination  of  the  allowable  cut  for  the  five  years 

until  the  next  revision. 
General  rules  of  management. 
Part  Two.     General  cutting  plan. 
Part  Three.     General  planting  plan. 

C.  American  Outline  (suggested) 

I.  Orientation. 

a.  Location  and  size  of  forest  (working  unit). 

b.  History  of  forest  with  important  changes, 
(i)  Past  and  present  ownership  (status). 

(2)  Boundaries.    Interior  surveys. 

(3)  Past  object  of  management  and  general  administra- 

tion. 

(4)  Past  revenues  and  expenditures. 

c.  Physiographic  features, 
(i)  Topography. 

(2)  Drainage. 

(3)  Geology  (formation). 


*  Diagrammatically  by  means  of  blocks.     See  Diagram  D,  p.  ic 

t  "  Bestands  bonitat." 


156  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

(4)  Soils  (depth,  fertility,  etc.). 

(5)  Climate   (maximum,  minimum,   and  average  tem- 

perature, rainfall,  prevailing  wind  direction). 

d.  Social  and  industrial  features. 

(i)  Population.     Dependence  on  forest  for  work  and 
fuel  and  timber  supply. 

(2)  Labor  supply. 

(3)  Local  conditions^lumbering,  grazing,  mining,  agri- 

culture, etc.     Interrelation  with  forest. 

e.  Digest  of  working-plan  conference. 

/.   Time,  method,  and  personnel  of  field  work.     Cost,  if 
desired. 

2.  Foundation. 

a.  Growing  stock   (estimates).     Tabulation.     (Stand  and 

stock  tables  if  uneven-aged.) 
h.  Increment  per  acre  or  per  cent  or  both. 

c.  Distribution  of  the  age  classes.     Tabulation.     (Diam- 

eter classes  if  uneven  aged.) 

d.  General  stand  table.     Tabulation. 

e.  Maps.     Statement  of  maps  prepared.     The  maps  them- 

selves should  go  in  the  back  of   the  plan  or  else  be 

kept  on  file  separately. 
/.  Forest  description. 
g.  Division  of  area.     Working  unit,  block,  compartment, 

subcompartment.     Working  group  if  necessary. 

3.  Recommendation. 

a.  Object  of   management.     Wishes   and  purpose   of   the 

owner  (policy,  if  national  or  state  forest).  Exploita- 
tion or  sustained  yield  (annual,  periodic).  Produc- 
tion of  cordwood,  sawtimber,  pulpwood,  turpen- 
tine, etc. 

b.  Practical    restrictions.     Market,    logging    accessibility, 

special  danger  from  fire,  erosion,  avalanches,  etc. 

c.  Silvicultural  method  of  management. 

(i)  Silvicultural   method   or  methods,    their  proposed 
application. 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  157 

(2)  Rotation  (period  of  reproduction,  cutting  cycle,  etc.). 

(3)  Marking  rules. 

(4)  Rules  for  brush  disposal. 
Regulation. 

a.  Determination  of  cut. 

h.  Distribution  of  cut.     Formation  of  cutting  series,  etc. 

c.  General  cutting  plan  for  working  period. 

d.  General  planting  plan  for  working  period. 
A  dministra live  pla n . 

a.  Scheme  of  field  administration. 

(i)  Administrative  districts  and  area. 
(2)  Field  and  office  force,  year-long  and  temporary. 
h.  Forecast  of  receipts  and  expenditures  and  net  income 
for  working  period. 
Grazing  plan. 

a.  Description  of  forage  types  and  condition  of  range. 
h.  Protection  and  development  of  range. 

(i)  Range  improvements.     Watering  facilities. 

(2)  Treatment  of  overgrazed  and  partly  stocked  areas. 

(3)  Measures  for  fuller  use  of  range. 

(4)  Control  and  eradication  of  poisonous  plants. 

(5)  Control  and  extermination  of  predatory  animals, 

prairie  dogs,  and  other  pests. 
c.   Grazing  control.     Capacity  of  range.     Grazing  districts 
and  allotments. 
Permanent-improvement  plan, 
a.  General. 
h.  Telephone. 

c.  Look-out  towers. 

d.  Fire  cabins  and  tool-boxes. 

e.  Roads  and  trails. 
/.    Ranger  stations. 

Forest- protection  plan, 
a.  Fire  control. 

(i)  Nature  of  fire  problem. 

(2)  Past  fires.     Bearing  on  the  plan. 


158  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(3)  Hazards.     Danger  zones,  extra  fire  risks,  necessity 

of  special  measures. 

(4)  Cooperation.     Desirable  and  proposed  cooperation. 

(5)  Scheme  of  protection. 

(a)  Primary  control  by  look-outs. 

(b)  Secondary  control  by  patrol  and  actual  combat. 

(6)  Organization.     Look-outs  and  patrolmen.     Action 

in  case  of  fire. 

(7)  Mobilization. 

{a)  Fire-fighters,  regular  and  volunteer,  available. 

(b)  Transportation.     Logging  railroads,  pack  trains, 

teams,  etc. 

(c)  Tools,   equipment,   and  supplies.     Location  of 

tool-boxes.     Bases  of  supplies. 

(8)  Improvements.     Additional  headquarters,  telephone 

lines,  trails,  etc.,  required. 

b.  Insect    control  1  and  other  special  problems  warranting 

c.  Fungus  control  J  inclusion. 

9.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

a.  Settlement. 

(i)  Classification  of  lands,  whether  of  relatively  greater 
value  for  agriculture  or  for  forest  purposes. 

(2)  Sale  prices  of  land.     Comparative  land  values. 

(3)  Cost  of  clearing  land  for  agriculture  and  probable 

profits  of  agriculture  thereon. 

b.  Special  uses. 

c.  Water-power  sites.     Present  and  future  development. 

Stream  measurements. 

10.  Appendix  (observations  not  properly  a  part  of  the  main 

working  plan). 

a.  General  data — geology,  soils,  climate,  occurrence  and 

protection  of  fish  and  game. 

b.  Silvical  data. 

(i)  Volume,  growth,  and  yield  tables. 

(2)  List  of  component  species. 

(3)  Silvical  characteristics  of  component  species. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  159 

(a)  Soil  and  moisture  requirements. 

(b)  Influence  of  elevation  and  aspect. 

(c)  Tolerance. 

(d)  Reproduction. 

(e)  Injuries:    fire,    storm,   frost,    drought,    fungus, 

insects,  etc. 
Detailed  estimates,  maps,  forest  descriptions,  etc.,  of 
survey  units  or  other  units,  unless  filed  elsewhere  for 
greater  convenience. 


SECTION  THREE 

THE  PLANTING  PLAN 


This  is  properly  an  integral  part  of  every  working  plan, 
but  in  order  to  avoid  confusion,  and  not  to  encumber  the 
subject  of  timber  regulation,  detailed  mention  has  been  reserved 
for  this  section. 

Some  planting  operations  are  necessary  in  every  well-regu- 
lated forest,  whether  it  be  to  eke  out  a  too  scanty  natural  repro- 
duction or  to  restock  former  forest  areas  where  natural  repro- 
duction is  out  of  the  question. 

Just  as  a  general  cutting  plan  is  drawn  up  for  the  intended 
cuttings  in  the  ensuing  working  period,  so  a  general  planting 
plan  is  drawn  up  to  cover  all  the  operations  of  artificial  repro- 
duction which  are  contemplated  during  the  ensuing  working 
period.  From  out  this  general  planting  plan  the  administra- 
tive officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  selects  those  areas  whose 
restocking  he  deems  of  the  most  immediate  importance  and 
incorporates  them  into  an  annual  planting  plan  which,  with  the 
approval  of  his  superior  officers,  becomes  the  planting  schedule 
for  the  ensuing  year. 

As  a  preamble  to  the  general  planting  plan  should  come  a 
genera]  discussion  of  the  areas  needing  artificial  reproduction, 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  expedient  to  go  in  replanting  com- 
mensurate with  the  results  to  be  obtained,  and  other  phases  of 


160  THE   THEORY   AND    PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

the  policy  to  be  pursued  In  the  choice  of  areas.  In  general, 
it  is  advisable  to  restock  first  those  areas  on  which  success 
seems  most  assured,  leaving  for  the  future  with  its  greater 
experience  and  presumably  greater  capital  those  areas  where 
immediate  success  is  less  certain.  For  most  administrations 
profit  by  making  a  good  initial  "  showing  "  and  once  the  way 
is  paved  the  more  difficult  operations  can  be  undertaken  even 
though  they  fail  to  make  so  good  a  "  showing."  Other  things 
being  equal,  the  money  return  from  a  planting  is  surer,  larger, 
and  sooner  the  better  the  site  and  the  quicker  the  success  of  the 
operation. 

This  should  be  followed  by  a  full  discussion  of  the  methods 
of  reproduction  to  be  employed.  First  the  results  of  past  plant- 
ings and  sowings,  accentuating  the  reasons  for  failure  or  success, 
and  then  the  policy  for  future  planting  and  sowing.  The  source 
of  plant  material — seeds,  seedlings,  and  transplants  should  be 
considered;  the  seed  should  be  shown  to  be  from  reliable  and 
appropriate  sources  (sources  suitable  to  the  climatic  and  site 
conditions),  and  the  planting  stock  preferably  grown  in  nurseries 
on  the  forest  or  else  secured  from  outside  nurseries  whose  site 
corresponds  approximately  to  that  of  the  intended  planting 
site.  If  there  are  to  be  nurseries  on  the  forest,  the  preamble 
of  the  general  planting  plan  gives  full  provisions  for  their 
location,  creation,  and  maintenance,  and  should  contain  the 
area  thereof  in  seed-beds  and  their  capacity,  the  area  thereof  in 
transplant  beds  and  their  capacity,  and  the  proposed  annual 
production  by  species  and  classes  of  stock.* 

The  areas  which  it  is  intended  to  plant  or  sow  during  the 
coming  working  period  should  be  indicated  on  the  working 
map  of  the  forest  either  by  color,  or  shading,  or  symbols. 

The  annual  planting  plan  may  conveniently  take  the  forms 
on  pages  162  and  163,  a  separate  head  being  used  for  plant- 
ings and  seedings., 

The  general  planting  plan  may  conveniently  take  the  form 
shown  on  page  161. 

*  See  Toumey:   "  Seeding  and  Planting,"  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1916. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 


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164  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

SECTION  FOUR 

CONTROL  AND  REVISION  OF  WORKING  PLAN 

No  working  plan  can  remain  alive  and  useful  unless  it  is 
revised  at  frequent,  more  or  less  regular  intervals.  These 
revisions  incorporate  all  the  changes  which  have  taken  place 
during  the  working  period.  Such  renewals  may  be  made  at 
fixed  intervals  of  say  ten  years,  or  at  irregular  intervals,  as 
is  commonly  the  case  where  revised  data  or  changes  in  prevail- 
ing market  conditions,  etc.,  necessitate  modification  of  the 
original  plan. 

Since  the  working  period  is  usually  ten  years,  the  working- 
plan  document  is  usually  revised  every  decade.  But  under 
very  intensive  conditions  more  frequent  revision  may  be  justi- 
fied, even  to  the  extent  of  every  five  years.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  plan  should  not,  ordinarily,  go  without  revision  for  more  than  a 
decade,  even  though  the  working  period  be  longer,  e.g.,  two 
decades,  or  even  four,  as  in  Prussia  and  Austria,  respectively. 

Especially  under  the  kaleidoscopically  changing  conditions 
in  most  parts  of  America  is  it  desirable  to  have  frequent  revisions 
so  that  the  working  plan  may  really  "  work  "  and  not  become 
obsolete  within  the  working  period.  Special  revisions  before  the 
end  of  the  working  period  are,  of  course,  necessitated  when- 
ever, through  storm,  purchase,  or  the  like,  a  substantial  change 
is  caused  in  the  size,  character,  or  composition  of  the  forest. 

The  record  of  the  progress  of  the  work  on  the  forest  as 
outlined  by  the  working  plan  is  called  the  working  plan  control. 
This  control  operates  as  a  check  on  the  execution  of  the  working 
plan.  In  European  practice  these  records  are  kept  by  maps 
and  books.  The  entries  are  made  periodically  or  at  the  time 
of  completing  each  of  the  various  projects.  The  books  (called 
"  Control  Books  ")  may  conveniently  be  divided  into  two 
parts:  I,  the  cutting  and  planting  record;  II,  the  general  or 
"  history "  book.  The  former  may  conveniently  take  the 
following  form  (page  165). 


THE   THEORY  AND   PEACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 


165 


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166  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

It  is  obvious  that  this  Part  I  of  the  control  book  is  built  up 
from  the  annual  cutting  and  planting  plans.  It  embodies  their 
essentials  in  convenient  form  as  a  permanent  record.  It  can,  of 
course,  be  extended  to  cover  all  the  activities  of  the  forest 
besides  "  timber,"  e.g.,  grazing.  A  column  for  areas  can  also 
be  added  between  columns  3  and  4  if  desired. 

A  separate  page  is  kept  for  each  convenient  unit— be  it  block 
or  compartment,  township  or  section,  depending  on  the  needs  of 
the  administration. 

All  areas  cut  or  planted  are  to  be  entered  on  the  map  of  the 
forest. 

Part  II,  the  "  history  "  book,  contains  convenient  headings 
for  a  general  record  of  the  various  forest  activities.     Such  are: 

1.  Forest  survey  and  boundaries:  a  running  record  of  the 
forest  surveys  made  and  proposed,  be  it  for  timber,  grazing,  or 
what  not,  and  of  the  changes  in  boundaries  and  the  demarca- 
tion in  the  field  of  the  boundaries.* 

2.  Methods  of  cutting  and  planting:  a  running  record  of 
silvical  observations  in  natural  and  artificial  reproduction. 

3.  Forest  protection:  a  running  record  of  all  important  forest 
menaces;  the  method  and  success  of  the  combat  with  them. 
Such  are: 

{a)  Fire. 
{h)  Storm. 
{c)  Frost. 
[d)  Drought. 
{e)   Fungi. 
(/)  Insects,  etc. 

Chapters  can  be  added  at  will  for  the  other  forest  activities 
covered  in  a  forest  plan,  such  as: 

*  This  may  also  include  the  Status  Records,  that  is,  records  showing  the 
ownership  of  newly  acquired  lands.  Complete  status  records  will  show  in  detail 
the  chain  of  title  for  each  parcel  of  land  and  also  all  servitudes  and  easements 
attaching  to  the  land.  In  addition,  they  usually  show  the  location  and  extent 
of  all  qualified  or  temporary  alienations  such  as  unpatented  mineral  claims,  leased 
areas,  or  lands  otherwise  specifically  under  permit  or  afi'ected  by  outstanding 
contracts,  as  for  the  sale  of  timber,  etc. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OP   WORKING  PLANS  167 

4.  Administration. 

5.  Grazing. 

6.  Permanent  improvements. 

7.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

8.  Utilization  of  forest  products. 

(a)  Methods  and  costs  of  logging. 

{b)  Methods  and  costs  of  saw-milling. 

(c)  Markets  and  prices  of  stumpage  and  lumber  or 

other  products. 
{d)  Utilization  of  by-products, 
(e)  Impregnation  of  wood  (wood  preservation),  etc., 

ad  lib. 

9.  Game  and  the  chase. 

10  Money  returns  of  management. 

(a)  Gross  income  and  expense. 

(b)  Net  income. 

11.  Personfiel  relations. 

12.  Miscellaneous  data. 

Such  a  control  book,  together  with  the  summarized  annual 
cutting  and  planting  plans,  corrected  maps,  and  the  marginal 
notes  and  corrections  in  the  plan  itself,  forms  a  perfectly  ade- 
quate basis  for  undertaking  the  periodic  revision. 

The  thoroughness  of  the  revision  depends  on  the  correctness 
of  the  original  plan.  Only  rarely  should  it  be  necessary  to 
rewrite  the  entire  plan.  Those  portions  which  come  under 
"  Orientation,"  such  as  physiographic  features,  social  and  indus- 
trial features,  and  under  "  Foundation,"  such  as  forest  descrip- 
tion, division  of  area,  etc.,  can  either  be  incorporated  directly 
in  the  new  working  plan,  or  else  reference  made  to  the  original 
working  plan  covering  these  portions  in  detail. 

In  matters  of  determination  and  distribution  of  the  cut  as 
embodied  in  the  general  cutting  and  planting  plans,  the  revision 
is  essentially  a  recalculation  and  reallotment. 

The  preliminary  of  every  revision  should  be  a  working-plan 
conference  to  review  the  plan  for  the  working  period  just  passed 
and  to  make  suggestions  for  the  ensuing  period.     The  digest  of 


168         THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

this  conference  should  be  incorporated  in  the  revised  working 
plan. 

If  the  forest  is  essentially  even-aged,  the  revised  working 
plan  should  contain  under  "  Orientation  ":  "  History  of  forest 
with  important  changes,"  a  diagrammatic  presentation  of  the 
distribution  of  the  age  classes,  showing  graphically  the  gradual 
approach  (presumably)  towards  normality  in  this  respect.  This 
may  be  shown  either  by  means  of  a  graph  or  by  means  of  pro- 
portionate blocks  (see  Diagram  D,  p.  19). 


PART  TWO 
PRACTICE  OF  WORKING  PLANS 


Practice  of  Working  Plans 


CHAPTER  I 

IN  EUROPE 

SECTION  ONE 

GERMANY 


The  chief  States  of  Germany  from  the  standpoint  of  forestry- 
are:  Prussia,  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Wiirttemberg,  Baden,  and 
Alsace-Lorraine.  For  each  of  these  will  be  given,  after  a  sum- 
mary of  the  sahent  conditions,  such  as  size  of  country  and 
f6rests,  topography,  species,  markets,  etc.,  a  brief  review  of  the 
history  of  working  plans,  the  chief  foundations  of  plans,  the 
methods  of  regulating  the  cut,  and  the  prescriptions  for  control 
and  revision  of  the  working  plan.  The  same  scheme  will  be 
followed  for  the  data  about  France  and  Austria  (Sections  2  and  3). 

I.  Prussia 

Prussia  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  German  States,  with 
86,118,526  acres,  or  about  65  per  cent,  of  the  total  German 
Empire.  Of  these  86,118,526  acres,  20,427,179  acres,  or  23.72 
per  cent,  are  in  forest. 

Prussia  contains  widely  varying  topography,  from  the  very 
characteristic  plains  of  the  northeast  to  the  lesser  ranges  along 
the  Austrian  frontier  (Riesengebirge)  and  in  the  east-central 
portions  (Harz,  Teutoburger  Wald,  Taunus,  etc.). 

171 


172  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

If  one  considers  Germany  as  roughly  divided  into  three  main 
forest  regions  by  a  line  from  the  corner  of  Bohemia,  at  Eger, 
northward  through  Hannover  into  Liibeck  on  the  Baltic,  and 
another  line  from  Hannover  westward  to  Amsterdam,  the  large 
northeast  block  may  be  called  the  pine  region,  the  small  north- 
west block  the  heath  region,  and  the  remaining  southwest  block 
the  hardwood-spruce-fir  region.  Practically  all  of  the  pine 
region  is  contained  within  Prussia,  and  this  explains  the  pre- 
ponderating percentage  of  Scotch  pine — 60  per  cent  as  against 
12  per  cent  of  spruce  and  fir,  5  per  cent  of  oak,  15  per  cent 
of  beech,  and  4  per  cent  of  birch  and  alder — in  Prussia. 

The  markets  for  Prussian  forests  products  are  so  excellent 
as  to  admit  of  the  profitable  placing  of  all  classes  of  timber  with 
only  minor  exceptions. 

During  the  nineteenth  century  the  period  method  of  regulat- 
ing the  cut  ("  Fachwerksmethoden,"  i.e.,  "  Framework  Meth- 
ods " — see  method  No.  17)  predominated  in  Prussia.  At 
first,  owing  to  the  influence  of  G.  L.  Hartig,  it  was  a  strict 
volume-period  method  ("  Massenfachwerk,"  i.e.,  volume  frame- 
work). The  official  instructions  of  18 19  provide  a  detailed 
allotment  by  volume  and  classes  of  material  for  each  of  the 
six  periods  of  the  120-year  rotation.  The  impracticabihty  of 
such  calculations  without  adequate  bases  soon  brought  a 
change  from  Kartig's  strict  method,  the  more  so  since  such 
slow  progress  was  being  made  toward  the  goal  of  having  work- 
ing plans  for  each  forest.  Therefore,  in  1836,  after  a  provisional 
regulation  of  the  cut  had  been  accomplished  between  1826  and 
1835,  a  new  order  for  regulatmg  the  cut  was  issued  which  re- 
mained in  force  almost  to  the  end  of  the  century.  Though  still 
based  on  the  volume-framework  method,  the  calculation  of 
cut  was  simplified,  and  the  equaHty  of  area  was  also  taken  into 
consideration  together  with  a  correct  distribution  of  the  age 
classes  and  the  formation  of  cutting  series.  With  the  intro- 
duction of  the  factor  of  area,  the  volume-period  method  (Massen- 
fachwerk) fell  into  abeyance  and  the  combined  period  method 
(Kombiniertes  Fachwerk)  came  to  be  used  for  less  regular  stands, 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 


173 


the  area-period  method  (Flachenfachwerk)  for  the  more  regular 
conditions.* 

Of  late  the  calculation  of  cut  has  been  more  and  more 
confined  to  the  ensuing  period  (the  I  period),  paying  little  or 
no  attention  to  the  periods  following  (periods  II,  III,  IV,  V, 
and  VI).  This  is  especially  marked  in  the  instructions  for 
191 2,t  which  go  a  long  way  toward  ameliorating  the  strict 
"  framework  "  methods.  Wagner  considers  them  an  abandon- 
ment of  the  "  framework  "  methods. t 

The  general  cutting  plan  takes  the  following  form: 
Column    la     Block  and  compartment. 
lb     Subcompartment. 
2     Soil  description. 
5     Site  quality.     Average  height. 

4  Average  age  and  age  limit. 

5  Percentage  of  stocking  (density). 

6  Form  of  mixture  (scattered,  groupwise,  etc.) 

7  Percentage  of  chief  species  in  mixture. 

8  Species  (repeated  between  columns  18  and  19). 

9  Defects  and  diseases. 

10     Area  of  the  whole  compartment, 
over  120  years 
101-120 
Area  by       II        81-100 
Age         III        61-80  !•  area  in  hectares. 

Classes      IV         41-  60 
V        21-40 
VI  I-  20 


*  P'or  outline  of  Prussian  working  plan,  see  p.  153. 

t  "  Anweisung  zur  Ausfiihrung  von  Betriebsregelungcn  in  den  Preussischen 
Staatsforsten  vom  17.   Marz,  191 2." 

t  Wagner,  in  the  third  edition  of  Lorey's  "  Handbuch  der  Forstwissenschaft," 
Vol.  Ill,  p.  463,  takes  the  position  that  the  new  instructions  (1912)  "  entirely 
abandon  the  '  framework  '  methods  (No.  17)  and  go  over  to  the  method  by  age 
classes  (No.  16);  one  must  not  be  deceived  by  the  retention  of  the  '  framework  ' 
terminology  ...  An  assignment  of  areas  and  volume,  to  all  the  periods  of  the 
rotation  no  longer  takes  place;  under  difficult  conditions  only  'are  the  first  and 
second  periods  to  be  provided  for.'  " 


174  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

i8     Unstocked  blanks. 

19  Cutting  area  of  the  I  period,  in  hectares. 

20  Cutting  area  of  the  II  period  in  hectares. 

21  SiKicultural  method  to  be  used. 

22  Species  to  be  reproduced. 

23  Remarks.  Explanations  of  measures  adopted. 
Reasons  for  departures  from  the  usual  rotation 
age. 

The  block  and  the  ranger  district  usually  coincide.  Working 
groups  ("  Betriebsklassen  ")  are  segregated  whenever  there  are 
salient  differences  in  species,  rotation,  or  method  of  management. 

The  block  is  subdivided  into  rectangular  units  called 
"  Jagen  "  ("  hunts  ")  in  the  plains,  "  Distrikte  "  ("  districts  ") 
in  the  mountains.  The  boundaries  are  roads  or  topographic 
features  (ridges,  streams,  etc).  The  average  size  in  pine  stands 
is  from  49.4  to  74.1  acres;  in  spruce  stands,  from  24.7  to  49.4 
acres. 

Subcompartments  are  not  segregated  for  minor  differences, 
and  never  for  less  than  2.47  acres  (i  hectare). 

To  insure  continuity  of  records  the  numbers  and  boundaries 
of  blocks,  compartments,  etc.,  are  not  changed  except  for  urgent 
reasons. 

The  soil  and  rock  description  is  usually  taken  directly  from 
the  geological  survey  maps. 

The  site  quality  is  usually  gauged  by  means  of  the  average 
height  as  given  in  yield  tables  published  by  the  experiment 
station.  The  average  height  is  determined  by  hypsometer 
measurements  of  trees  in  representative  stands  or,  where  less 
important,  merely  estimated. 

In  uneven-aged  stands  in  which  the  age  classes  blend  one 
into  the  other,  the  age  limits  and  average  age  are  indicated; 
where  the  age  classes  are  widely  divergent  (e.g.,  very  young  and 
mature)  they  are  entered  separately.  Great  weight  attaches 
to  the  age  class  and  area  table. 

The  criterion  of  cutting  the  sustained  yield  is  the  normal 
area  of  the  period.    This  is  determined  by  the  proportion  of  the 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  175 

period  to  the  rotation  which  is  usually  ^  =  ^-     An   annual 

sustained  yield  is  not  required,  but,  under  regular  conditions,  the 
periodic  yield  must  be  sustained  even  for  the  individual  blocks; 
under  irregular  conditions  more  than  the  normal  area  can  be 
cut  if  there  is  an  excess  growing  stock,  and  vice  versa.  With 
species  requiring  a  long  period  of  reproduction  (e.g.,  natural 
reproduction  by  shelterwood-selection  method  often  requires 
forty  years)  the  areas  are  allotted  in  detail  for  the  I  and  II 
periods,  but  not  the  volumes. 

The  cutting  is  virtually  restricted  to  the  stands  indicated 
for  the  I  period.  The  manifest  impossibility  of  selecting  such 
stands  twenty  years  in  advance  and  then  barring  all  the  others 
has  led  to  a  universal  demand  for  the  ''Opening  of  the  II 
Period."  This  is  met  by  providing  for  an  intermediate  revision 
in  the  eleventh  year  which  may  lead  to  the  preparation  of  a 
new  cutting  plan. 

The  choice  of  stands  for  the  I  period,  i.e.,  the  stands  to  be 
cut  during  the  next  twenty  years,  is  prescribed  as  follows: 
Mature  stands  and  defective  stands  are  chosen  first.  Without 
undue  sacrifices  the  object  to  attain  is  the  equalization  of  the 
age-class  distribution  by  smoothing  out  the  age  differences 
between  subcompartments  (unless  they  are  extreme),  but  not 
having  too  large  adjacent  areas  of  the  same  age  class,  because 
of  the  increased  danger  from  fire,  insects,  windbreak,  etc.,  in 
coniferous  stands  especially.  Cutting  series  are,  therefore, 
advised  and  so  many  points  of  attack  that  each  cutting  area 
will  have  become  stocked  with  young,  thrifty  growth  before 
the  adjacent  area  is  cut.  This  usually  means  a  wait  of  twenty 
years. 

The  rotation  for  the  chief  species  is  determined  for  all  Prus- 
sia, hence  only  departures  therefrom  need  detailed  explanation 
and  justification. 

The  yield  or  allowed  cut  for  the  twenty-year  period  is  the 
growing  stock  on  the  cutting  areas  of  the  I  period  plus  the 
increment  thereon  during  ten  years   (half  the  period).     This 


176  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

growing  stock  is  estimated  by  calipering,  either  all  the  trees,  or 
certain  representative  stands,  if  conditions  are  sufficiently 
uniform.  The  volumes  are  then  calculated  from  basal  area, 
average  height  and  form  factor.  The  volume  of  stands  of  the 
younger  age  classes  is,  if  sufficiently  regular,  taken  directly 
from  yield  tables,  or  by  means  of  sample  areas.*  The  incre- 
ment per  cent  is  usually  taken  directly  from  the  yield  tables. 

The  allowed  annual  cut  is  then  found  by  dividing  the  volume 
of  the  entire  I  period  by  twenty. 

A  separate  cutting  plan  for  thinnings  is  drawn  up.  The  cut 
in  thinnings  is  approximated  from  past  experience.  This  in 
eludes  the  accidental  yield  through  drought  and  windfall. 

The  regulation  of  selection  forests  is  purposely  simplified, 
since  these  uneven-aged  stands  are  primarily  intended  for  protec- 
tion. The  division  into  subcompartments  is  usually  waived; 
the  age  classes  are  only  approximated,  and  the  calipering  of 
every  single  stem  is  not  necessary.  The  allowed  cut  for  the 
I  period  is  estimated  for  each  working  unit  according  to  the 
ripeness  for  cutting.  Where  the  selection  forest  is  a  distinct 
unit  of  sufficient  size  (e.g.,  a  block)  the  average  annual  incre- 
ment of  the  whole  is  determined  and  taken  directly  as  the 
allowed  annual  cut  in  so  far  as  there  is  not  a  marked  excess  or 
deficiency  in  the  growing  stock  or  the  condition  of  the  forest 
or  other  cogent  reasons  demand  a  heavier  cutting  or  vice  versa. 
Where  the  selection  forest  has  been  under  regulated  manage- 
ment for  some  time  past,  experience  will  dictate  the  approxi- 
mately correct  annual  cut. 

*  The  preparation  of  the  working  plan  is  one  of  the  regular  duties  of  the  forest 
supervisor;  where  necessary,  he  is  aided  in  the  field-work  by  younger  members 
of  the  Service  (forest  assessors,  etc.);  the  rangers  do  the  calipering,  etc.  It  is 
preceded  by  a  working-plan  conference  between  the  district  officer  and  the  super- 
visor. This  conference  discusses  ways  and  means,  is  digested  and  incorporated 
in  the  working-plan  document  (called  the  "  Abschatzungswerk,"  a  bound  volume 
of  some  125  pages,  manuscript  or  typewritten,  with  ample  margins  for  additional 
notes.)  The  working  plan  must  be  submitted  through  regular  channels,  to  the 
Minister  of  Agriculture,  whose  letter  putting  the  working  plan  into  effect  is  incor- 
porated in  the  bound  volume. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  177 

Control  and  revision  of  the  working  plan  are  provided  for 
by  means  of  the  control  book,  the  chief  note-book  (Hauptmerk- 
buch),  and  the  area  register. 

The  control  book  serves  the  double  purpose  of  checking  the 
estimate  and  the  allowed  annual  cut.  For  the  allowed  cut 
must  be  adjusted  according  as  the  estimates  are  shown  to  be 
too  high  or  too  low.  If  too  high,  there  will  be  a  deficit  at  the 
end  of  the  period;  if  too  low,  there  will  be  a  surplus.  The 
allowed  annual  cut  is  not  strictly  maintained;  silvicultural  or 
market  conditions  may  necessitate  a  higher  or  lower  cut.* 
Of  course  this  must  be  offset  by  reducing  or  increasing  the 
cut  in  the  years  following. 

Each  cutting  is  entered  in  the  control  book.  Part  A,  where 
for  each  Jagen,  or  District  (compartment),  there  is  a  page 
whereon  to  show  the  time  and  kind  of  cutting,  the  species,  and 
the  amount  obtained  by  classes  of  material. 

When  the  cutting  of  a  stand  is  finished  the  result  is  com- 
pared with  the  estimate  and  the  difference  entered  in  control 
book,  Part  Ai,  which  is  arranged  as  follows: 

Column  I.  Block. 

2.  Compartment. 

3.  Subcompartment. 

4.  Year  in  which  cutting  is  completed. 

5.  Estimate  in  cubic  metres  by  species. 

6.  Actual  cut  in  cubic  metres  by  species — from  con- 

trol book,  Part  A. 

7.  Plus  difference  in  cubic  metres  between  columns 

5  and  6. 

8.  IVIinus  difference  in  cubic  metres  between  columns 

5  and  6. 
At  the  end  of  each  year  f   a  balance  is  struck,  and  the  result 
of  this  comparison  between  the  estimate  and  the  actual  cut  is 

*  An  Oberforster  (superx'isor)  may  not  exceed  the  allowed  annual  cut  by 
more  than  5  per  cent  without  the  consent  of  the  district  office;  over  10  per  cent 
requires  the  consent  of  the  central  office  in  Berlin. 

t  Formerly  every  three  years. 


178 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 


applied  to  the  allowed  cut  as  entered  in  control  book,  Part  C, 
which  is  arranged  as  follows: 


Year 

Cut  by  Species,  in  Cubic  Metres 

Allowed 

Actual 

Balance  ± 

This  balance,  be  it  a  plus  or  a  minus  sum,  is  carried  forward 
and  used  as  the  basis  of  the  cutting  plan  for  the  year  following, 
taking  into  account  the  plus  or  minus  divergence  of  the  esti- 
mate. At  the  same  time  Part  C  serves  as  a  current  record  of 
the  annual  cuts.  It  is  customary  to  add  brief  marginal  explana- 
tions of  the  cuts  larger  or  smaller  than  the  calculated  amount. 

The  chief  note-book  (Hauptmerkbuch)  is  a  running  history 
of  the  forest  showing  the  occurrences,  management,  measures 
taken,  observations  made,  etc.,  to  form  the  basis  for  a  new 
organization  of  the  forest  f  and  as  a  guide  to  new  administra- 
tive officers  just  taking  charge  of  the  forest.  It  is  divided  in 
two  parts — the  first,  a  general  part,  divided  into  various  headings 
for  the  recording  of  events  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
forest,  observations,  and  also  recommendations,  under  the 
following  headings : 


*  Part  B  has  long  since  been  abandoned. 

t  This  is  sometimes  supplemented  by  a  "  Taxatorische  Notizbuch,"  i.e.,  a 
note-book  containing  data  especially  concerning  the  field-work  and  operation 
of  the  working  plans. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


179 


Surveying  and  estimating. 

Methods  and  results  of  cuttings  and  plantings. 

Forest  protection. 

Status  and  servitudes. 

Miscellaneous:     markets,    utilization,    by-products,    the 
chase,  money  returns,  personnel,  etc. 

The  second  part  of  the  chief  note-book  is  specific,  and  con- 
tains a  page  for  each  compartment  whereon  to  record  the  events 
and  changes  affecting  it.     It  is  in  tabluar  form,  as  follows: 

Column 


I 

Compartment. 

2     Area. 

3] 
4. 

Cuttings.     ■ 

Year. 
Area. 

5 

Year. 

6 

Method  of  planting  or  seeding. 

7 

Species. 

8 

Plantings. 

_,,     ^       ^    .  ,        ,    f  Amount  of  seed. 
Plant  material  used,  i  ,  ^          ^     , 

[  Num.  of  plants. 

9 

lO 

Area  restocked. 

II 

Cost  aside  from  cost  of  plant  material. 

12 

Remarks. 

As  a  supplement  to  this,  all  changes  in  boundaries,  soil 
utilization,  in  the  character  of  the  stands  through  cutting  or 
planting,  new  constructions  such  as  roads,  etc.,  are  entered  on 
a  map  of  the  forest. 

The  register  of  area  consists  of  four  parts : 

(A)  The  index  to  all  extant  maps,  estimates,  and  working 
plans  for  the  forest. 

(B)  A  record  of  all  changes  in  area. 

(C)  A  record  of  all  changes  in  ownership,  servitudes,  etc. 

(D)  A  record  of  the  changes  in  the  area  devoted  to  the 
growth  of  timber. 

Since  the  year  1852  there  have  been  detailed  instructions 
for  the  revision  of  working  plans.  Until  recently  this  included 
not  only  the  regulation  of  the  cut,  but  also  the  actual  admin- 


180  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

istration  of  the  forest.  With  the  advent  of  frequent  statistical 
reports  and  inspection  trips,  this  last  fell  into  abeyance.  Reg- 
ular revisions  come  at  the  close  of  the  twenty-year  period, 
however,  as  explained  above,  an  intermediate  revision  is  provided 
for  during  the  eleventh  year  of  the  period. 

The  work  of  revision  is  similar  to  that  of  a  new  working 
plan;  the  degree  of  revision  necessary  depends  on  the  changes 
which  have  occurred.  Preparatory  to  the  revision,  each  portion 
of  the  forest  is  carefully  gone  over  to  determine  its  present  con- 
dition as  compared  with  the  condition  at  the  time  the  estimate 
was  made,  in  order  to  form  an  adequate  basis  for  judging  the 
effectiveness  of  the  measures  of  the  working  plan,  their  further 
usefulness,  and  extent  to  which  they  require  revision.  The 
results  of  this  examination  are  presented  in  brief — oftentimes 
tabular— form,  especially  as  concerns  cuttings,  plantings,  finan- 
cial results,  changes  in  area,  servitudes,  and  the  like. 

Revisions  are  made  by  the  Oberforster  (supervisor)  him- 
self, aided,  where  necessary,  by  men  especially  detailed,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  original  estimates.  All  revisions  are  based 
on  a  conference  between  the  oflEicials  concerned,  following  the 
precedent  of  the  working-plan  conference;  this  conference 
decides  upon  the  further  usefulness  of  the  working  plan  as  it 
stands,  just  what  revisions  are  to  be  undertaken,  and  along  what 
lines. 

The  following  are  given  as  the  chief  considerations  in  the 
revision  of  a  working  plan: 

(i)  The  correction  of  the  surveys  and  estimates. ,  The  area 
register  and  the  second  part  of  the  chief  note-book  together 
with  the  forest  maps  posted  to  date  are  aids  in  this. 

(2)  Review  of  the  accomplished  cutting  and  reproduction. 
The  bases  of  this  are  the  control-book  and  the  chief  note-book. 
As  an  index  to  the  results  of  management,  the  cut  is  totaled  for 
the  period;  in  addition  there  is  compiled  from  Part  Ai  of  the 
control-book  a  comparison  of  the  estimated  cut  with  the  actual 
cut;  the  areas  planted  or  sown  during  the  period  are  also  sum- 
marized. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  181 

(3)  Review  of  the  silvicultural  method  of  treatment,  the 
rotation,  division  of  area,  etc. 

(4)  Review  of  the  regulation  of  the  cut  both  in  determina- 
tion and  distribution.  This  may  involve  a  partial  or  even 
complete  revision  of  the  estimates. 

(5)  The  drawing  up  of  new  general  cutting  and  planting 
plans  according  to  the  revised  regulation. 

(6)  The  correction  or  even  redrafting  of  the  forest  map. 

II.  Bavaria 

Bavaria  is  the  second  largest  of  the  German  States.  Of  its 
18,739,890  acres,  32.51  per  cent  (6,072,386  acres)  are  in  forest. 

Bavaria  presents  widely  varying  topographic  and  forest 
conditions,  from  the  rugged  spruce  and  fir-clad  northern  ranges 
of  the  Alps  along  the  southern  boundary,  through  the  varied 
spruce,  fir,  and  Scotch  pine  stands  mixed  more  or  less  with  hard- 
woods, of  the  central  and  northern  portions,  to  the  extensive 
stands  of  pure  spruce  on  the  east — the  famous  "  Bohemian 
woods,"  low  ranges  not  exceeding  5000  feet  elevation,  which 
form  the  boundary  with  Austria — and  the  magnificent  oaks  of 
the  Spessart  in  the  north-west  corner. 

The  market  for  timber  in  Bavaria  is  very  variable.  In  the 
more  remote  localities,  such  as  the  Alps  on  the  south  or  the 
"  Bohemian  woods  "  on  the  east,  utilization  is  necessarily  still 
incomplete.  In  the  northern  and  central  portions  of  the  king- 
dom intensive  agriculture  has  brought  with  it  the  profitable 
possibiHty  of  complete  utilization. 

Systematic  forest  organization  in  Bavaria  dates  from  1830, 
when  the  combined  period  method  (see  method  No.  17)  was 
adopted  by  a  governmental  order.*  The  period  was  taken  as 
twenty-four  years  instead  of  the  customary  twenty  years.  The 
cut  was  regulated  for  three  periods — seventy-two  years — in 
advance. 

The  end  of  the  nineteenth  and  beginning  of  the  twentieth 

*  "  Instruktion  fiir  Forstwirtschaftseinrichtung,"  June  30,  1830. 


182  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

century  witnessed  a  revolution  in  the  forest  policy  of  Bavaria, 
away  from  the  often  excessive  conservatism  of  the  early  days, 
toward  a  more  liberal  interpretation  of  the  State's  economic 
duty,  especially  in  regard  to  the  increasing  tendency  to  manage 
the  State  forests  for  profit  as  well  as  for  a  future  timber  supply. 
This  change  in  general  policy  has  manifested  itself  in  the 
new  instructions  for  forest  organization.*  These  working- 
plan  instructions  because  of  their  absolute  modernity  deserve 
somewhat  detailed  mention. 

The  objects  of  forest  organization  are  given  as: 
(i)  To  give  a  clear  conception  of  existing  conditions  in  the 
forest. 

(2)  To  deduce  from  these  conditions  and  the  purposes  which 
the  forest  is  to  serve  the  object  and  methods  of  management 
and  the  determination  of  the  cut. 

(3)  To  regulate  the  cut  in  detail  for  the  ensuing  working 
period. 

(4)  To  control  the  execution  of  the  plan  and  to  secure 
statistical  data  thereon. 

The  working  unit  usually  coincides  with  the  administrative 
unit  (forest),  but  this  is  not  essential;  if  conditions  on  two  or 
more  adjacent  forests  are  sufficiently  similar  one  working  plan 
may  suffice. 

The  working  unit  {"  Betriebsverband  ")  is  divided  into 
districts,  and  these  into  compartments.  This  division  is  pri- 
marily for  the  purpose  of  orderly  arrangement  and  easier 
orientation. 

The  basis  of  division  into  districts  (blocks)  is  usually  topo- 
graphic; sometimes,  however,  matters  of  status  and  of  servi- 
tudes cause  the  segregation  of  a  district. 

The  basis  of  division  into  compartments  is  chiefly  silvi- 
cultural,  i.e.,  differences  in  elevation,  exposure,  opening  of  log- 
ging means,  formation  of  a  mantle  against  windfall,  etc.     The 


*  "  Anweisung  fur  die  Forsteinrichtung  in  den  Koniglich  Bayrischen  Staats- 
waldungen,"  Munich,  1910,  Verlagsbuchhandlung  Oskar  Beck. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  183 

actual  boundaries  are  usually  topographic — ravines,  ridges, 
etc. — with  artificial  boundaries — roads,  trails,  cut-out  lanes, 
etc. — as  needed.  For  mere  division  of  area  a  width  of  3  metres 
(9.84  feet)  *  suffices;  where  protection  from  fire  or  wind  also 
comes  into  play  (formation  or  wind-mantles),  the  width  must 
be  increased  accordingly. 

The  determination  of  existing  conditions  (the  first  task  of 
forest  organization)  begins  with  the  division  of  each  compart- 
ment into  forest  and  non-forest  soil;  the  latter  includes  not 
only  those  areas  unsuited  for  forest,  but  also  those  suited  for 
forest  but  used  otherwise.  Where  accurate  measurements  are 
impossible,  as  in  the  Alpine  zone,  estimates  of  the  relative 
area  suffice. 

Of  the  forest  areas,  those  are  to  be  distinguished  whose 
yield  is  naturally  very  slight  (Alpine  type)  or,  for  reasons  of 
protection,  cost  of  logging,  etc.,  do  not  permit  of  complete, 
regular  utihzation. 

The  compartment  is  divided  into  subcompartments.  The 
basis  of  this  division  is  the  individual  stand.  On  the  stand  as 
the  ultimate  unit  is  built  up  the  entire  management. f 

The  stand,  or  subcompartment,  must  be  a  unit  as  regards 
site,  soil  quality,  species,  age,  and  character  (growth,  density, 
health,  etc.).  A  stand  must  differ  in  at  least  one  of  these 
features  in  order  to  be  made  into  a  subcompartment.  However, 
all  minor  differences  are  to  be  disregarded.  The  minimum 
size  of  a  subcompartment  is  usually  i  hectare  (2.47  acres). 

In  coppice  and  in  selection  forest  the  segregation  of  stands 
(subcompartments)  is  often  impossible,  and  the  compartments 
must  sufiice. 

Wherever  possible  the  subcompartment  boundaries  are  to 

*  In  Saxony  the  main  compartment  lines  running  north  and  south  (Wirt- 
schaftsstreifen)  average  9  metres  (29.52  feet);  the  secondary  compartment  lines 
running  east  and  west  (Schneisen)  average  45  metres  (14.76  feet). 

t  "  Die  ausgeschiedenen  Bestande — die  Unterabteilungen — sind  die  Wirt- 
schaftseinheiten.  Sie  bilden  die  Grundlage  fiir  die  Ordnung  der  Wirtschaft  und 
fiir  die  Nutzung  des  Waldes,  sowie  fiir  die  Buchung  der  Ertrage  und  des 
Auf  wands." 


184  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

be  topographic  features  or  roads,  trails,  etc.  Where  these  do 
not  suffice,  lines  are  cleared  to  a  width  of  1-2  metres  (3.28  to 
6.56  feet)  and  rings  of  white  paint  put  on  the  border  trees. 

In  uneven-aged  stands  the  average  age  as  well  as  the  age 
limits  is  to  be  given.  Throughout  the  greatest  attention  is 
given  to  the  presentation  of  the  age  classes  in  their  relation  to 
area  by  i,  species,  singly  and  in  mixture;  2,  site  quahties;  and 
3,  density  of  stocking.  These  are  shown  graphically  by  means  of 
diagrams.  The  reason  of  this  attention  to  the  age-class  distri- 
bution is  that  in  even-aged  high  forest  it  is  made,  in  conjunction 
with  data  on  the  thriftiness  of  stands  and  their  suitability  to  the 
chosen  site,  the  basis  of  regulating  the  cut  and  of  judging  the 
progress  towards  a  normal  forest.  In  coppice  with  preponder- 
ating standards  {"  Oberholzreicher  Mittelwald  ")  and  in  selec- 
tion forest  a  presentation  of  the  age  classes  is  seldom  practi- 
cable; the  most  that  could  be  done  would  be  a  summary  of  the 
area  occupied  by  each  age  class  within  the  same  (uneven-aged) 
stand,  and  this  gives  no  adequate  basis  for  judgment. 

Detailed  estimates  are  confined  usually  to  those  stands 
intended  for  cutting  during  the  ensuing  working  period  of  ten 
years.  Ocular  estimates  suffice  if  conditions  are  regular  and 
there  are  available  data  on  cuttings  of,  or  yield  tables  for, 
similar  stands.  In  all  other  cases  caHper  measurements  either 
of  sample  plots  or  of  every  tree,  as  the  irregularUty  of  the  stand 
may  necessitate,  are  required. 

The  increment  is  to  be  determined  for  the  next  twenty  years, 
because  it  is  a  fundamental  principle  that,  at  the  end  of  twenty 
years  at  the  latest,  the  working  plan  is  to  be  completely  revised, 
growing  stock,  increment,  and  allowed  cut  redetermined.  How- 
ever, only  half  the  increment  for  the  twenty  years  is  to  be  added 
to  the  present  volume  of  the  stands  to  be  cut,  since  at  the  end 
of  the  first  decade  half  of  the  stands  so  designated  will  have 
been  cut  and  be  without  further  increment. 

The  increment  is  taken  either  from  suitable  normal  yield 
tables  or  as  the  current  annual.  The  former  is  simple;  the 
latter,  in  irregular  and  overmature  stands,  more  reliable.     The 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  185 

mean  annual  increment  can  be  used  if,  by  investigation,  it  has 

been   determined   what   relation   with   increasing   age   and   on 

different  site  qualities  the  current  annual  increment  bears  to 

the  mean  annual. 

A  peculiarity  of  Bavarian  forest  organization  is  the  "  Char- 

N 
acter   Index  "    ("  Charakterzahl ")    of   the    stand:     —    or  the 

a 

number  of  stems  per  hectare  divided  by  the  average  diameter. 

This  index  figure  is  determined  separately  for  each  stand. 

In  the  description  of  existing  conditions,  special  attention 
is  paid  to  the  methods  of  getting  out  the  timber  and  sugges- 
tions for  the  development  of  roads,  and  other  logging  methods. 
Forests  only  partially  accessible  demand  a  plan  of  logging 
which  includes  portions  now  inaccessible  as  well  as  those  already 
opened  to  management.  This  plan  is  usually  indicated  on  a 
contour  map. 

The  real  and  the  normal  growing  stock  are  determined  (the 
latter  from  yield  tables),  since  they  show  whether  there  is  an 
excess  or  a  deficit.  The  relation  of  normal  increment  to  normal 
growing  stock  gives  the  normal  yield  by  which  the  actual  yield 
can  be  judged  (see  Hundeshagen's  formula,  method  No.  7). 

On  this  basis  of  conditions  as  they  exist,  the  general  rules 
of  management  are  then  formulated  according  to  the  objects 
which  the  forest  is  to  serve.  A  decision  must  therefore  be 
reached  as  to  species,  form  of  stands  desired,  silvicultural 
methods,  and  the  rotation  to  be  adopted.  Finally  the  cutting 
area  for  the  next  working  period  must  be  fixed. 

A  working  unit  may  be  divided  into  groups  ("  Betriebs- 
klassen  ")  that  is,  portions  of  one  or  more  administrative  units 
varying  sufficiently  from  conditions  on  the  rest  of  the  area  to 
warrant  a  separate  age-class  table  and  calculation  of  the  cut. 
These  variations  can  be  in  silvicultural  method;  in  different 
age  of  maturity  in  the  species  (i.e.,  different  rotations);  in 
marked  difference  of  increment,  especially  in  widely  varying 
elevations;  and  in  important  servitudes  which  influence  the 
course  of  management. 


186  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

It  is  to  be  remembered,  however,  that  too  many  divisions 
of  the  working  unit  make  the  plan  unwieldy  and  difficult  of 
execution,  hence  only  considerable  differences  are  to  be  taken 
into  account. 

The  instructions  for  determining  the  rotation  age  are  a 
declaration  of  principles  for  the  new  Bavarian  forest  policy. 
The  rotation  age  is  to  be  governed  by  the  objects  of  manage- 
ment: "  Without  violating  the  sustained  yield  and  with  the 
regard  to  rights  of  user,  to  secure  the  highest  possible  produc- 
tion of  those  classes  of  timber  best  suited  to  the  needs  of  the 
community  and  of  the  country  as  a  whole.  In  addition,  the 
administration  is  bound  to  manage  the  state  property  entrusted 
to  it  in  an  economic  manner,  and  from  the  management  to 
secure  the  highest  possible  money  revenue. 

"  According,  therefore,  as  a  forest  is  not  exclusively  or  pre- 
ponderatingly  intended  to  satisfy  servitudes  or  to  be  a  protection 
or  a  recreation  forest,  the  management  must  aim  at  the  largest 
possible  production  of  most  demanded  timber  and  at  the 
economic  securing  of  a  maximum  money  revenue." 

The  rotation  age  must  be  determined  from  this  standpoint. 
This  determination  is  not  to  be  confined  to  the  other  stands, 
but  must  extend  to  the  younger  classes  whose  origin  and  growth 
are  often  different  from  that  of  the  older  timbers;  *  for  in  fixing 
the  rotation  age,  the  period  of  years  required  for  these  younger 
stands  to  reach  maturity  is  the  most  important. 

The  possible  rotation  period  is  bounded  on  the  lower  side 
by  the  merchantability  of  the  sizes  secured,  on  the  upper  side 
by  the  age  at  which  the  forest  rent  ceases  to  increase.  The 
time  of  maximum  forest  rent  is  therefore  the  extreme  rotation 
age.     As  a  rule  the  rotation  is  to  be  fixed  at  that  age  which 

*  This  difference  is  well  illustrated  by  the  Western  yellow  pine.  Measure- 
ments made  by  the  author  near  Flagstaff,  Arizona,  in  1907,  show  that  the  mature 
yellow  pine,  when  in  the  "  blackjack  "  form,  grew  much  slower  than  the  present 
"  blackjack  "  of  the  same  size;  e.g.,  at  100  years  of  age  the  present  "  yellow  pine  " 
were  13.2  inches  diameter  breast  high;  the  present  "blackjack"  17.95  inches 
diameter  breast  high.  See  Forest  Service  Bulletin  loi,  "  Western  Yellow  Pine 
in  Arizona  and  New  Mexico,"  tables  9  and  10. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  187 

produces  the  maximum  amount  of  timber  of  medium  size, 
provided  the  site  quality  permits.  On  poorer  sites  the  growth 
is  slower,  and  there  the  management  must  be  satisfied  with  the 
production  of  smaller  sized  timber  if  the  rotation  is  not  to  be 
unduly  prolonged. 

Some  sacrifices,  however,  of  mere  income  to  the  production 
of  larger  timbers  is  proper,  since  it  is  the  duty  of  the  state  to 
provide  for  these.  But  where  this  can  be  secured  only  at  the 
sacrifice  of  a  satisfactory  income  per  cent  the  prolongation  of 
the  rotation  is  unwarranted. 

Besides  the  mathematical  calculations  of  timber  and  money 
yield  certain  other  factors  come  into  play,  i.e.,  the  influence 
of  the  rotation  age  on  the  condition  of  the  soil  and  on  the  capacity 
of  the  stand  for  natural  reproduction,  the  increased  danger  of 
windfall,  the  decreased  vigor  with  increasing  years,  the  possi- 
bility of  intensive  thinnings,  and  other  partly  economic,  partly 
silvicultural,  partly  administrative  considerations. 

Where  there  are  several  species  with  considerable  variance 
in  their  rotation  age,  but  the  working  unit  is  not  subdivided 
into  working  groups,  the  rotation  age  is  taken  as  the  average  of 
the  respective  areas  and  rotations. 

In  selection  forest  a  rotation  age  is  difficult  of  determination 
because  of  the  widely  varying  conditions  of  growth.  Diameter 
is  a  better  guide,  i.e.,  the  diameter  of  greatest  productivity 
determined  by  measurements  of  sample  trees.  Trees  which 
have  reached  the  diameter  so  determined  are  merchantable. 

For  every  working  unit  the  area  must  be  determined  which 
is  to  be  cut  over  in  the  ensuing  twenty-year  working  period. 
The  fundamental  consideration  is  to  gauge  the  cutting  areas 
so  that  overmature  stands  and  cutting  of  immature  stands  are 
both  avoided,  but  at  the  same  time  so  that  undue  vacillations 
of  area  cut  over  do  not  occur  with  their  bad  effect  on  local 
market  for  and  needs  of  timber,  emplojinent  for  men  in  the 
woods,  and  also  delayed  normality  in  the  distribution  of  the  age 
classes. 

If  the  cutting  areas  are  gauged  properly  and  if,  in  addition. 


188  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

by  means  of  prompt  reproduction,  care  of  soil  and  growth,  the 
increment  in  volume  and  in  value  is  furthered,  then  the  demands 
of  a  sustained  yield  are  fully  met. 

In  the  normal  forest  the  periodic  cutting  area  is  constantly 

equal  to    — . —  X20.     Where  the  age-class  distribution  is 

Rotation 

abnormal  this  figure  can  serve  only  as  a  means  of  comparison. 

In  such  a  case  the  periodic  cutting  area  is  the  sum  of  the  stands 

requiring  cutting  for  silvicultural  reasons  ("  hiebsbediirftig  ")> 

stands  now  mature  {"  hiebsreif  ")  or  becoming  mature  in  the 

next  twenty  years. 

Where  the  distribution  of  the  age  classes  shows  a  marked 
departure  from  the  normal,  the  progress  of  the  cuttings  must 
be  gauged  for  several  decades  in  advance,  so  as  to  foretell  the 
progress  which  the  cutting  of  the  present  working  period  will 
make  toward  a  normal  distribution  of  the  age  classes.  This 
is  to  be  done  schematically  according  to  the  following  form: 

Premise. — Rotation  =  100    years.     Area  =  982.2    acres. 

Normal  periodic  cutting  area  =  ^ — ^X  20  =  196.4 

100 

acres;  for  silvicultural  reasons  (overmaturity  and  poor  growth) 
this  has  to  be  increased  to  258  acres.  This  overcutting  is 
then  equalized  in  ensuing  periods.     (See  p.  189.) 

The  distribution  of  cutting  areas  for  the  ensuing  working 
period  is  not  confined  to  assigning  half  the  periodic  area  to  the 
ten  years  elapsing  before  the  intermediate  revision.  The  admin- 
istrative officer  in  charge  of  the  forest  requires  leeway  in  the 
choice  of  where  to  cut;  for  he  must  vary  his  points  of  attack, 
use  to  the  full  each  seed  year,  secure  a  mixture  of  species  by 
advance  reproduction  of  certain  ones  (e.g.,  of  fir  in  spruce-fir 
type;  of  beech  in  pine-beech  type),  take  thought  of  the  fluctua- 
tions in  the  demand  for  timber,  aim  to  secure  each  year  an 
approximately  equal  revenue,  etc.  This  is  possible  only  if 
the  field  of  operations  is  larger  than  the  mere  ten-year  cutting 
area.  This  is  secured  by  allowing  the  administrative  officer 
in  charge  of  the  forest  to  pick  from  the  periodic  (twenty-year) 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS 


189 


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190  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

cutting  area  those  areas  for  the  cutting  in  the  ensuing  decade 
which  he  deems  most  expedient  for  reasons  of  silviculture, 
cutting  sequence  (cutting  series),  administration,  and  maturity. 

If  the  sum  of  the  stands  so  chosen  greatly  exceeds  the 
allowed  ten-year  cutting  area,  those  stands  are  to  be  excluded 
and  saved  for  a  future  decade  whose  growth  is  the  most  thrifty 
and  valuable. 

By  dividing  the  entire  periodic  cutting  area  into  the  mer- 
chantable volume  thereon,  the  cut  per  acre  is  obtained.  This 
multiplied  by  the  annual  cutting  area  gives  the  allowed  annual 
cut  in  volume. 

In  coppice  with  preponderating  standards  and  in  selection 
forest  regulation  by  area  is  not  desirable,  since  it  does  not  do 
justice  to  the  complicated  and  varying  needs  of  the  tree  in  such 
uneven-aged  stands.*  In  such  stands  the  cut  for  the  ensuing 
working  period  consists  of  all  trees  above  a  fixed  diameter 
(determined  as  stated  above),  in  addition  the  volume  of  those 
trees  which  during  the  next  ten  years  will  reach  this  diameter 
and  such  as  have  to  be  removed  for  silvicultural  reasons  ("  wolf- 
trees,"  "  snobs,"  etc.).  In  the  case  of  coppice  with  standards 
there  is,  also,  of  course,  the  volume  of  the  coppice.  A  tenth  of 
the  total  amount  for  the  next  decade  is  the  allowed  annual 
cut,  this  is  checked  by  the  current  annual  increment  per  cent — 
the  sum  of  the  current  annual  increment  per  cents  of  each  diam- 
eter class,  and  by  the  result  of  past  cuttings.  Order  and  prog- 
ress of  the  cuttings  are  insured  by  the  observance  of  a  cutting 
cycle. 

The  provisions  for  renewal  of  the  working  plan  are  as  fol- 
lows: Each  plan  is  drawn  up  for  a  period  of  twenty  years,  but 
at  the  end  of  the  first  decade  an  intermediate  revision — or 
review — is  had;  at  the  end  of  the  twenty  years  a  complete 
revision  is  had  resulting  in  a  new  plan.  Exceptional  circum- 
stances may  necessitate  a  complete  revision  before  that  time, 
as  when  unforeseen  changes  have  occurred  in  the  very  founda- 

*  Where  the  undergrowth  is  too  dense  to  permit  caHpering,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  regulate  the  cut,  even  of  coppice  with  standards,  by  area. 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  191 

tions  of  the  plan.  Often,  however,  it  sufitices  in  such  cases  to 
make  provisional  changes  for  the  remainder  of  the  working 
period.  Natural  calamities — wind,  fire,  etc. — always  require 
some  time  before  the  measure  of  the  catastrophe  can  be  prop- 
erly judged. 

The  intermediate  revisions  are  to  cover  the  following  points: 
a.  Necessary  corrections  of  the  methods  of  determining  the 
cut  (checking  of  estimates,  etc.). 

h.  Determination  of  the  cutting  areas  for  the  past  decade, 
comparison  with  the  allowed  area,  and  determination  of  the 
area  for  the  ensuing  decade  which  again  is  really  that  for  a 
period  of  twenty  years. 

c.  Emendation  of  the  plan  of  management. 

d.  Determination  of  the  volume  yield  of  the  next  working 
period  (based  on  a,  b,  and  c). 

e.  The  making  of  a  new  map  of  the  forest. 

In  the  main  revisions  the  task  is  a  similar  one,  but  more 
exhaustive.  The  results  of  the  management  during  the  past 
period — twenty  years — are  to  be  compiled  and  the  whole 
structure  of  the  working  plan  renewed  as  may  be  necessary. 

Bavaria,  in  common  with  many  of  the  German  States,*  has 
a  separate  section  of  working  plans  in  the  central  office  at 
Munich.  This  section  is  charged  with  the  field-work  and  the 
office  preparation  of  the  plans.  The  supervisor  of  the  forest 
concerned  is  consulted  in  every  feature  of  the  plan;  he  and  his 
subordinates  are  charged  to  assist  in  the  preparation  thereof. 

The  bases  of  the  plan  as  well  as  the  completed  plan  require 
the  approval  of  the  royal  ministry  of  finance,  forest  section. 

The  procedure  in  working  plans  is  as  follows: 

During  the  working  period  the  supervisor  is  supposed  to 
keep  careful  record  of  such  results  of  management  as  aid  in 
judging  of  the  volume  and  value  yield.  The  underlying  field 
data  can  often  be  supplemented  by  him  during  slack  periods  of 
the  year. 

*  E.g.,  Saxony,  Baden  and  Wiirttemberg;   Prussia  is  a  notable  exception. 


192  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

In  the  last  year  of  the  twenty-year  working  period  the  super- 
visor has  to  report  about  the  execution  of  the  working  plan,  the 
experiences  gained  thereby,  and  about  the  essential  results  of 
the  management,  the  changes  in  the  condition  of  the  forest,  to 
express  himself  about  the  fundamentals  of  the  working  plan 
and  to  base  suggested  changes  on  detailed  data. 

The  district  inspection  officer  has  to  express  himself  as  to 
this  report  and  these  recommendations  of  the  supervisor.  The 
working-plans  officer  assigned  for  the  task  has  then,  in  company 
with  the  district  officer  and  the  officers  of  the  forest,  to  go  over 
the  forest  in  detail.  On  the  basis  of  this  trip  over  the  forest, 
and  after  due  consideration  of  the  proposals  made  by  the  dis- 
trict officer  and  the  supervisor,*  the  working-plans  officer  draws 
up  the  fundamentals  of  the  new  working  plan,  and  the  scheme 
of  field-work.  Often,  of  course,  some  of  these  fundamentals 
must  await,  at  least  in  part,  certain  investigations  in  the  field; 
for  such  points  a  supplement  is  to  be  prepared. 

The  fundamentals  as  agreed  upon  at  the  working-plan  con- 
ference and  any  supplement  thereto,  must  be  approved  by  the 
state  ministry  of  finance. 

In  the  last  year  of  each  decade,  also,  the  supervisor  must 
anticipate  the  intermediate  revision  or  review  by  a  report  on 
the  correctness  and  applicability  of  the  methods  of  regulation 
and  of  the  rules  of  management. 

A  working-plan  conference  and  consequent  drawing  up  of 
the  fundamentals  of  the  proposed  plan  are  not  necessary  in  the 
intermediate  revisions. 

The  field-work  is  done  by  assistants  of  the  working-plans 
officer  in  so  far  as  the  forest  force  cannot  be  used  therefor. 
The  party  may  be  divided  into  sections,  each  under  the  direc- 
tion of  a  section  chief  versed  in  working-plans  procedure. 
These  section  chiefs  and  their  workmen  are  instructed  (if  neces- 
sary in  writing)  by  the  working-plans  officer  acting  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  administrative  officers  of  the  forest. 

*  If  their  advice  is  refused  the  reason  for  such  refusal  must  be  stated  by  the 
working-plans  officer. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  193 

The  supervisor  has  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  progress  of 
the  work  and  the  manner  of  execution.  The  section  chief,  on 
demand,  must  report  thereon  to  the  supervisor. 

The  working  up  of  the  field  data  and  the  preparation  of  the 
working-plan  document  is  the  task  of  the  section  of  working 
plans  in  the  central  office  at  Munich.  As  soon  as  the  essentials 
of  the  plan  are  ready  in  rough  draft,  they  are  to  be  submitted 
to  the  supervisor  of  the  forest  for  his  review  and  written  rec- 
ommendations and  memoranda.  These  last  are  to  be  incor- 
porated in  the  working-plan  document.  Then  the  draft  of 
the  plan  is  submitted  to  the  officers  of  the  district  and  cen- 
tral offices,  who  must  also  record  any  divergent  opinions  in 
writing. 

Finally,  all  new  working  plans  or  main  revisions  have  to  be 
laid  before  the  ministry  of  finance  for  its  approval,  which  puts 
the  plan  in  force.  In  intermediate  revisions  it  sufiices  to  notify 
the  ministry  of  departures  necessitated  from  the  original  plan, 
before  submitting  the  revised  plan  to  the  supervisor  for  execu- 
tion. 

A  map  of  the  forest  forms  an  indispensable  part  of  every 
working  plan. 

No  special  document  is  necessary  for  the  intermediate  revi- 
sions; the  existing  plan  is  merely  amended  in  the  text,  if  neces- 
sary by  the  insertion  of  extra  pages. 

A  part  of  every  revision  is  a  resume  of  the  management  dur- 
ing the  working  period  just  concluded. 

III.  Saxony 

Although  small  in  size — 3,703,271  acres — Saxony  is,  because 
of  its  dense  population  and  great  industrial  development,  the 
state  of  third  importance  in  Germany.  Despite  its  dense  pop- 
ulation, 949,813  acres,  or  25.65  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  is 
forested. 

Saxony  is  a  compact  unit,  roughly  triangular  in  shape,  the 
low  mountains  of  the  Erz  Gebirge  forming  the  base  and  the 
city  of  Leipzig  the  apex.     The  stands  in  Saxony  are,  overwhelm- 


194  THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

ingly,  pure  spruce  with  Scotch  pine  stands  in  the  nortnern, 
plains  portion. 

The  Saxon  markets  are  pluperfect,  which  explains  the  suc- 
cess of  the  Saxon  spruce  management  with  such  a  low  rotation 
and  resulting  small  diameter.* 

Forest  organization  in  Saxony  is  under  the  control  of  a  cen- 
tral bureau  of  forest  organization  (Forsteinrichtungsanstalt)  in 
Dresden.  This  has  worked  well,  since  it  has  secured  uniformity 
of  methods  and  results  and  an  experienced,  well-drilled  per- 
sonnel. It  also  established  for  forest  organization  a  definite 
and  correct  interrelation  with  the  other  branches  of  forestry — 
administration,  experimentation,  etc. 

As  in  most  of  the  German  states,  the  regulation  of  cut 
was  first  by  the  period  method.  Heinrich  Cotta,  who  system- 
atized the  working  plans  for  the  Saxon  state  forests  in  the  years 
1811  to  183 1,  endorsed  both  the  area  period  and  the  combined 
period  methods.  Frequent,  regular  revisions  soon  obviated 
the  necessity  of  determining  the  cut  for  several  periods  of  twenty 
years  each  in  advance.  The  period  method  was  therefore  aban- 
doned and  the  determination  of  cut  confined  to  the  next  decade 
by  means  of  the  stand  method  ("  Bestandswirtschaft  ")  (method 
No.  16). t 

The  division  of  area  is  as  far  as  possible  rectilinear,  the 
boundaries  being  used  as  roads.  Because  of  the  imminent 
danger  of  windfall  in  spruce,  the  lines  are  run  parallel  with  and 
at  right  angles  to  the  prevailing  wind  direction. 

Stands  (subcompartments)  are  segregated  down  to  a  mini- 
mum area  of  half  an  acre.  The  prevalent  uniformity  of  con- 
ditions permits  of  tabulated  forest  descriptions.  Site  quality  is 
gauged  both  according  to  the  intrinsic  quality  of  the  soil  (Stand- 
ortsbonitat)  and  according  to  the  quality  of  the  stand  growing 
thereon  (Bestandsbonitat).     The  two  by  no  means  always  coin- 


*  See  "Management  of  Spruce  in  Saxony,"  Forestry  Quarterly,  Volume  XI, 
No.  2,  pp.  143-148. 

t  For  outline  of  Saxon  working  plan,  see  page  154. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  195 

cide;  for  the  stand  growing  on  a  certain  site  is  not  necessarily 
the  one  best  suited  to  it. 

The  age  classes  are  in  twenty-year  gradations — each  age 
class  is  again  divided  in  half  so  that  the  age-class  distribution  is 
recorded  by  decades. 

Owing  to  the  great  regularity  of  the  stands,  calipering  is  not 
ordinarily  necessary.  Stands  less  than  half  of  the  usual  rota- 
tion of  eighty  years  are  estimated  from  yield  tables;  stands 
over  forty  years  old  are  estimated  ocularly  and  reestimated  at 
each  ten-year  revision. 

Where  clear  cutting  preponderates,  the  normal  annual  cut 
is  taken  roughly  as  the  total  area  divided  by  the  rotation.  The 
proper  rotation  age  is  determined  by  applying  the  index  per 
cent  (Weiserprozent)  to  the  individual  stand.*  Tables  of  value 
increment  have  been  prepared  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  Saxony, 
based  on  the  prices  secured  in  the  open  market  for  the  various 
classes  of  timber. 

Saxon  forestry  foots  on  the  soil-rent  basis.  In  order  to  show 
the  profits  of  management  on  this  basis,  the  net  income  for  the 
whole  forest  is  compared  with  the  total  cost  of  production. 
This  is  done,  for  purposes  of  forest  organization,  by  determining 
the  timber  and  soil  capital  which  the  forest  represents  and 
then  showing  in  tabular  form  the  rate  of  interest  returned 
thereon  for  each  year  by  the  forest  management  (Reinertrags- 
iibersicht). 

The  normal  annual  cutting  area  is  maintained  as  nearly  as 
may  be.  Under  irregular  conditions,  departures  therefrom  are 
necessary.  The  table  of  age-class  distribution  serves  as  an 
index  to  the  degree  of  departure  necessary.  If  the  higher  age 
classes  are  in  excess,  the  annual  cutting  area  is  increased;   con- 


*  The  index  per  cent,  W,  is  determined  by  the  formula    W  ={a-\-b:izc) 

A+S 
where  a  =  volume  increment,  i  =  quality  increment,  c  =  value  increment  or  depre- 
ciation, .4=  the  arithmetical  mean  of  present  and  future  yield,  and  5  =  the  soil 
capital  with  interest  thereon.  (For  details  see  Roth:  "  Forest  Valuation,"  pp. 
76  to  78.) 


196  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

versely  it  is  diminished.  Hence,  a  careful  exposition  of  the 
age-class  distribution  is  of  vital  importance. 

The  Saxon  system,  of  maximum  money  returns  on  the  invest- 
ment, demands  that  those  stands  whose  index  per  cent  is  lowest 
be  cut  first.  The  next  most  important  consideration  is  the  cut- 
ting series;  for  with  the  preponderance  of  spruce,  the  danger 
from  windfall  demands  that  the  cutting  areas  progress  toward 
the  prevailing  wind  direction.  Since  the  cutting  strips  are 
narrow  and  an  interval  elapses  before  the  adjacent  strip  is  cut, 
it  follows,  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  cutting  series  are  short. 
However,  in  order  to  accomplish  this  and  to  avoid  the  joining 
together  of  large  areas  of  practically  equal  age,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  many  points  of  attack.  To  secure  these,  the  edge  of  a 
stand  exposed  by  the  removal  of  the  sheltering  stand  to  wind- 
ward, must  betimes  be  accustomed  to  the  exposure  by  the  for- 
mation of  deep  crowns^the  so-called  forest  mantle  or  wind 
mantle. 

The  most  important  task  of  the  forest  organization,  as  re- 
gards arrangement  of  area,  is  the  selection  of  these  points  of 
attack  for  the  cutting  series.  The  further  development  of  the 
cutting  series  can,  however,  be  only  sketched,  since  it  depends 
on  circumstances  which  the  organizer  at  the  time  of  drawing  up 
the  plan  cannot  know. 

The  volume  of  the  cut  for  the  working  period  of  ten  years 
is  found  by  ocular  determination  of  the  stand  on  the  area  to  be 
cut  over.  The  cut  to  be  expected  from  thinnings  is  gauged 
according  to  the  results  of  the  decade  past,  aided  by  yield 
tables,  and,  of  course,  with  special  regard  to  the  needs  of  the 
stands. 

Stress  is  laid  on  the  continuity  of  statistical  records  in  re 
age-class  distribution,  volume  of  growing  stock,  yearly  cuts  in 
amount  and  classes  of  material,  the  gross  income,  the  expenses, 
the  net  income  (Reinertrag) ,  the  forest  capital,  etc.  These 
records  have  been  kept  in  Saxony  since  1817  and  are  invaluable 
aids  for  purposes  cf  forest  organization. 

In  addition  to  the  revisions  at  the  end  of  the  ten-year  work- 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  197 

ing  period,  there  are,  in  Saxony,  intermediate  revisions  in  the 
middle  of  the  working  period.  The  most  important  features  of 
revision  are  the  entry  of  cuttings  and  plantings  on  the  map  of 
the  forest;  the  comparison  of  the  actual  cut  with  the  estimate; 
the  necessitated  departures  from  the  prescriptions  of  the  work- 
ing plan. 

For  purposes  of  forest  organization  the  usual  stand  map 
(scale  of  I  :  20,000  or  i  :  15,000)  showing  species,  age  classes, 
and  cutting  series,  is  used  as  a  base  whereon  to  show  the  intended 
cutting  areas  of  the  next  decade,  special  planting  areas,  the 
cutting  series,  etc. 

IV.    WURTTEMBERG 

Wiirttemberg  and  Baden  between  them  contain  the  Black 
Forest,  that  long  line  of  low  ranges  flanking  the  Rhine  on  the 
east.  Wiirttemberg  has  an  area  of  4,819,958  acres,  of  which 
30.77  per  cent  or  1,483,025  acres  are  forested. 

Wiirttemberg  is  traversed  by  various  low  ranges  which 
give  to  the  whole  kingdom  a  rolling  topography.  The  species 
corresponding  thereto  are  preponderatingly  spruce  and  fir. 

The  splendid  development  of  the  timber  market  in  Wiirt- 
temberg and  of  the  road  system  necessary  to  get  the  timber  on 
the  market  puts  Wiirttemberg  on  a  par  with  Saxony  as  regards 
financially  profitable  management. 

Wiirttemberg 's  systematic  forest  organization  dates  from 
the  year  1878.  The  experience  gained  during  the  years  follow- 
ing led  to  a  sweeping  revision  in  1898.  Since  then  there  has 
been  a  second,  tentative,  revision  of  the  working  plans  instruc- 
tions in  191 1.*  The  period  method  has  been  dropped,  with  the 
impractical  endowment  of  areas  in  advance  for  each  twenty- 
year  period  of  the  rotation.  Attention  has  been  centred  on  the 
segregation  of  stand  units,  i.e.,  subcompartments  and  the 
regulation  of  cut  based  thereon  rather  than  on  the  area  of  arbi- 
trary divisions  (compartments).     The  condition  of  the  individual 

*  "  Vorliiufige  Anleitung  zu  den  Vorarbeiten  der  Wirtschaftseinrichtung  u.s.w. 
in  Wiirttemberg,"  1911. 


198  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

stand  has  been  made  the  criterion  of  regulation;  the  cut  is  no 
longer  determined  in  advance  for  the  whole  rotation,  but  usually 
for  only  the  first  period  of  twenty  years,  exceptionally  for  the 
second  period  also. 

Normally,  the  cutting  area  of  the  I  period  =  — ; — X  20. 

•^'  ^  ^  Rotation 

Exceptions  are  necessitated   under  abnormal   conditions  such 

as   an   excess   or   deficit   of  merchantable   timber,   etc.     With 

thrifty  stands  and  a  proper  distribution  of  the  age  classes  (in 

ten-year  gradations)  the  sum  of  the  merchantable  stands  will 

automatically  aggregate  the  periodic  cutting  area. 

In  the  choice  of  stands  for  reproduction,  great  attention  is 
paid  to  the  formation  of  proper  cutting  series,  just  as  in  Saxony 
(see  above).* 

The  process  of  forest  organization  is  summarized  as  follows: 
After  rotation,  silvicultural  method,  and  species  have  been  set- 
tled upon  and  the  actual  condition  of  each  stand  (subcompart- 
ment)  accurately  determined,  the  first  period  of  twenty  years 
is  endowed  with  the  proper  area  of  subcompartments  according 
to  the  principles  outlined  above.  Then  for  the  next  decade  the 
stands  on  half  the  period  area  are  accurately  estimated  (cali- 
pered).  Since  there  are  always  unlooked-for  contingencies 
requiring  cutting  of  areas  aside  from  those  provided  for  in  the 
plan,  an  amount  based  on  past  experience  is  allowed  for  such 
emergencies. 

A  separate  area  plan  is  drawn  up  for  thinnings. 

Forest  organization  in  Wiirttemberg  is  in  a  state  of  transi- 
tion from  the  period  method  to  that  by  stands;  it  is  not  quite 
"  off  with  the  old  "  as  yet  nor  "  on  with  the  new." 

V.  Baden 

The  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden  is  the  neighbor  state  of 
Wiirttemberg.  It  has  a  total  area  of  3,725,007  acres,  of  which 
1,402,454  acres,   or  37.65  per  cent,  are  forested,  the  highest 


Oberster  Grundsatz  die  Bildung  geeigneter  Hiebszuge." 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  199 

percentage  of  any  of  the  German  states,  only  excepting  the  petty 
principalities  of  Waldeck  and  of  Reuss.* 

The  Black  Forest  range  traverses  Baden  from  north  to 
south  like  a  backbone.  The  preponderating  species  are  there- 
fore spruce  and  fir  (whence  the  name  "  Black  Forest  ")  except 
in  the  northern  plains  and  along  the  Rhine,  where  there  are  stands 
of  hardwoods  (mostly  coppice)  and  of  Scotch  pine. 

As  in  Wiirttemberg,  a  magnificent  road  system  makes  acces- 
sible every  portion  of  the  forests;  a  ready  market  exists  for 
almost  every  class  of  products. 

In  Baden,  too,  forest  organization  developed  from  the  vol- 
ume period  method  (Massenfachwerk).  But  under  the  pre- 
vailing forest  conditions  of  the  Grand  Duchy,  which  is  charac- 
terized by  splendid  natural  reproduction,!  especially  of  fir,  the 
method  did  not  prove  feasible;  for  the  process  of  natural 
reproduction  requires  a  much  longer  time  than  the  twenty- 
year  period  (usually  from  thirty  to  fifty  years). 

In  1846  a  combined  area  and  volume  "  framework  "  method 
was  prescribed,  first  worked  out  for  a  whole  rotation,  then 
determining  volumes  only  for  the  first  decade.  This  met  with 
difficulties  on  account  of  the  selection  forests,  so  that,  in  1869,  an 
adaptation  of  Heyer's  formula  (method  No.  9)  was  prescribed. 

Since  i860  thoroughgoing  revisions  of  the  working  plan  are 
undertaken  every  ten  years.  They  are  based  on  the  results  of 
the  past  decade;  the  actual  cut,  as  compared  with  the  esti- 
mates;  the  effect  thereof  on  the  condition  of  the  forest,  etc. 

The  present  working-plan  procedure  dates  from  191 2, J  its 
characteristic  features  are  as  follows:  § 


*  These  have  38.18  and  37.74  per  cent,  respectively.  The  average  for  the 
whole  German  Empire  is  25.88  per  cent. 

t  See  "  Natural  Regeneration  in  the  Black  Forest,"  Forestry  Quarterly, 
Volume  XI,  No.  3,  pp.  330-339. 

I  "  Dienstanweisung  uber  Forsteinrichtung  u.s.w.  in  Baden  (Forsteinricht- 
ungsordnung)  "  191 2. 

§  Adapted  from  "Die  Neue  Dienstanweisung  fur  Forsteinrichtung,"  Allgemeine 
Forst- und  Jagd-Zeitung,  Dec,  191 2,  pp.  420-425,  briefed  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XI, 
No.  I,  pp.  111-114. 


200  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

Before  the  working-plan  data  are  secured,  the  forest  is  care- 
fully gone  over  by  the  officials  who  are  concerned  in  the  organi- 
zation of  the  forest.  This,  also  involves  the  critical  scrutiny 
of  the  existing  working  plan  in  all  its  parts.  This  examination 
lays  stress  on  the  division  of  area,  the  descriptions  of  site  and 
of  stands,  the  estimates  of  growing  stock  and  of  increment,  the 
results  of  the  previous  management,  and  the  basic  provisions 
of  the  proposed  future  management. 

The  new  prescription  makes  the  stand  (subcompartment) 
the  unit  of  management;  as  far  as  according  to  species,  age, 
and  site  it  will  probably  remain  permanently  an  area  for  inde- 
pendent treatment. 

The  minimum  size  of  such  a  stand  is  not  prescribed.  Site 
classes  are  determined  by  use  of  average  height  and  age  accord- 
ing to  Eberhard's  site-class  tables.  For  determining  stock 
the  same  tables  are  used  reduced  by  lo  per  cent.  Only  the  vol- 
ume of  the  main  stand  is  used,  the  intermediary  stand,  5  to  10 
per  cent  of  the  total,  is  neglected,  which  opens  up  the  possi- 
bility of  great  variety  of  opinion  as  to  what  to  count  to  main 
and  intermediary,  stand,  and  to  likely  underestimates. 

The  increment,  however,  is  to  be  ascertained  on  both  final 
and  intermediary  yield;  namely,  a  total  average  increment  for 
the  rotation  under  normal  stock  conditions,  and  a  current 
increment  for  the  first  decade.  Also  the  mean  annual  felling 
age  increment  for  each  working  group  is  to  be  ascertained  by 
use  of  the  tables  checked  by  sample  areas.  These  latter  are 
to  be  made  permanent,  so  that  the  progress  of  increment  can 
be  studied. 

Age-class  distribution  according  to  area  and  volume,  and 
comparison  with  normality  is  to  be  specially  looked  after, 
but  the  normal  stock  is  to  be  figured  from  the  yield  tables,  not 
as  hitherto  according  to  formula. 

The  forest  capital  is  to  be  ascertained  for  comparison  with 
the  annual  net  yield  according  to  most  modern  valuation 
methods.  Stands  up  to  forty  years  of  age  are  to  be  calculated 
at  actual  cost  value,  older  stands  at  sale  values;   soil  values  as 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  201 

soil-rent  values  checked  by  actual  sale  values.  The  prescribed 
interest  rate  is  2.5  per  cent.  While — quite  properly — the  man- 
agement is  not  to  be  based  upon  a  strict  calculation,  the  prin- 
ciple is  laid  down,  that  the  aim  of  the  management  is  to  be  to 
secure  the  highest  forest  net  income  possible  under  sustained 
yield  management  besides  at  the  same  time  attempting  to 
secure  an  adequate  interest  rate  on  the  capital  involved  in  the 
management. 

Hence,  stands  are  to  be  considered  ripe  when  the  periodic 
increment  of  the  forest  net  yield  begins  to  decline  considerably, 
and  to  determine  this  rotation,  forest  net  yields  and  average 
interest  calculations  are  to  be  made,  also  soil  expectancy  values 
with  interest  rates  of  1.5  to  3  per  cent  are  to  be  calculated  to 
exhibit  the  time  of  culmination. 

If  then  the  rotation  based  on  the  forest  rent  and  the  financial 
rotation  based  on  an  "  adequate  "  (if  no  special  considerations, 
2.5  per  cent)  interest  rate  coincide,  it  is  accepted.  If  not,  then 
investigation  is  to  be  made  to  see  by  what  changes  in  manage- 
ment coincidence  can  be  secured. 

In  this  way,  for  the  first  time,  at  least  a  financial  check  is 
introduced. 

Where  the  determination  of  the  rotation  in  this  way  leaves 
uncertainty,  the  index  per  cent,  or  with  very  valuable  stands 
only  the  value  increment  per  cent,  is  to  be  used  for  judging 
ripeness. 

Rules  of  management  for  districts  of  similar  conditions  of 
production  are  to  be  formulated  to  stop  the  continual  experi- 
menting of  each  manager. 

For  regulation  of  the  cut  the  stand  method  (method  No.  16) 
has  been  adopted. 

The  securing  of  normal  age-class  distribution  in  area  and 
volume  is  to  be  especially  attempted. 

In  very  uneven-aged  stands  or  with  long  periods  of  repro- 
duction, a  comparison  between  actual  and  normal  stock  is  to 
be  used  as  a  check  with  Heyer's  formula  (method  No.  9),  or 
else    the    volume    rate    per    cent    may    be    used    as  a  check. 


202  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

(/>  =  -  X  loo,  where  c  =  the  actual  annual  cut  and  v  =  the  actual 

growing  stock.) 

In  the  selection  forest  the  current  annual  increment  furnishes 
the  principal  index  for  the  allowed  cut,  as  well  as  other  con- 
siderations, like  market  and  labor  conditions,  etc. 

A  large  number  of  forms  for  gathering  the  necessary  data 
accompany  this  instruction;  the  control  book  is  to  furnish 
a  complete  chronicle  by  stands.  Besides  the  sample  areas 
mentioned,  so-called  special  typical  "  index  stands  "  are  to  be 
used  to  accumulate  data  of  yield  and  finance,  and  these  are  to 
be  specially  booked. 

The  map  work  is  also  to  be  improved  by  stand  maps  showing 
species,  age  class,  site. 

The  working  plans  are  to  be  made  by  a  special  bureau,  as 
hitherto,  except  that  the  head  of  the  bureau  is  now  made  a  mem- 
ber of  the  central  direction. 

Statistical  Record  has,  since  1869,  been  in  intimate  conjunc- 
tion with  forest  organization  so  as  to  have  systematic  data  on 
conditions  and  results,  to  simplify  the  working-plan  documents 
and  to  be  applied  as  precedents,  good  or  bad. 

The  vital  statistical  records  are:  The  history  of  the  particu- 
lar administrative  unit  (origin,  composition,  status,  etc.);  the 
description  of  the  forest  according  to  the  subheads:  forested 
area,  topography,  management,  forest  utilization,  logging 
methods,  forest  protection,  the  chase,  money  returns,  etc. 

These  data  are  compiled  for  the  first  time  by  the  adminis- 
trative officers  of  a  forest,  but  the  continuation  and  supple- 
menting thereof  is  done  by  the  forest  organizer  at  revision  of  the 
working  plan. 

VI.  Alsace-Lorraine 

These  provinces,  conquered  from  the  French  in  1870-71, 
contain  the  major  part  of  the  Vosges  Mountains,  a  long  line  of 
low  ranges  flanking  the  Rhine  on  the  west.  Together  they  have 
an  area  of  3,584,711  acres,  of  which  1,086,385  acres,  or  30.31 
per  cent,  are  forested. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  203 

The  topography  is  roUing,  becoming  mountainous  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Vosgcs.  The  species  correspond  closely 
to  the  topography:  coppice  hardwoods  and  Scotch  pine  in  the 
more  level  portions;  fir  and  beech  and  some  spruce  in  the 
mountains,  with  oak  on  the  foothills. 

The  road  development  and  the  timber  markets  of  these 
provinces  are  rapidly  approaching  the  same  degree  of  perfection 
as  already  exists  in  the  neighboring  state  of  Baden. 

When  Germany  gained  control  of  these  provinces  in  187 1  it 
became  necessary  at  once  to  have  provisional  working  plans  for 
each  administrative  unit.  These  were  made  by  the  adminis- 
trative officer  in  charge  of  the  forest,  passed  upon  by  the  inspect- 
ing (district)  officer,  and  finally  approved  by  the  minister. 
The  essentials  of  these  provisional  plans  are  the  division  of 
area,  plan  for  roads  and  trails,  determination  of  the  method 
of  silvicultural  management,  fixation  of  the  rotation,  etc. 

As  soon  as  possible  following  thereupon,  regular  working 
plans  were  constructed,  based  on  these  provisional  plans. 
Revised  plans  are  also  prescribed  at  the  expiration  of  each 
twenty-year  period,  after  substantial  changes  in  area  or  growing 
stock,  and  in  cases  of  transition  as  from  high  forest  to  coppice 
and  vice  versa. 

The  regulations  of  19 10  lay  stress  on  the  following  features 
of  forest  organization.* 

Division  of  Area. — The  segregation  of  compartments  is  done 
in  conjunction  with  the  laying  out  of  the  logging  and  wagon 
roads  and  the  trails.  The  area  in  coniferous  stands  is  not  to 
exceed  24.70  to  37.05  acres,  in  hardwood  stands  from  37.05  to 
49.40  acres.  For  coppice  and  coppice  with  standards  the  forest 
is  divided  into  annual  cutting  areas;  for  there  the  regulation  is 
by  area  alone.  In  communal  forests  one-quarter  of  the  area 
is  set  aside  as  reserve,  dating  from  the  ordinances  of  Colbert 
in  1669,  which  provide  that  in  forests  owned  by  the  church, 
or  ahenated  in  mortmain,  or  owned   by  communities  or  by 

*  "  V'orschriften  fur  die  Aufstellung  und  Revision  der  Forstbctriebseinricht- 
ungswerke,"  Strassburg,  1910. 


204  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF  WORKING  PLANS 

parishes,  one-fourth  of  the  area  is  to  be  reserved  from  cutting; 
the  balance  to  be  divided  into  regular  cuts  ("  coupes  regulees  ")• 

There  are  no  binding  prescriptions  for  the  division  into 
subcompartments.  In  larger  forests  with  various  species  the 
minimum  size  is  to  be  2.47  acres  (one  hectare).  For  segrega- 
tion on  the  basis  of  age  differences  or  differences  in  density  of 
stocking,  a  minimum  of  4.94  areas  suffices.  Subcompartments 
are  segregated  only  if  the  area  requires  distinctive  treatment. 
Stands  in  process  of  reproduction  are  to  be  segregated  down  to 
a  minimum  size  of  2.47  acres. 

The  subcompartments  are  indicated  on  the  ground  by 
means  of  stakes  and  ditches  at  the  corners  and  are  entered  in 
the  maps. 

Maps. — Field  surveys  are  usually  confined  to  interior  lines, 
since  reliable  geodetic  maps  are  available  for  both  provinces. 

The  forest  map  is  usually  on  a  scale  of  i  :  25,000  and  shows 
the  species  by  different  colors.  The  cutting  areas  are  indicated 
on  the  map  for  the  I  and  II  period — i.e.,  for  the  next  forty 
years — by  means  of  cross  hatching,  unbroken  lines  for  the  I 
period,  broken  lines  and  dots  for  the  II  period. 

Forest  Description  is  to  be  short  and  confined  to  the  char- 
acteristic features  such  as  status,  boundaries,  surveys,  etc.; 
stand  and  site  conditions;  the  occurrence  and  interrelation  of 
the  chief  species;  past  management  and  results;  future,  intended 
management,  expecially  species,  silvicultural  methods,  rota- 
tions, formation  of  cutting  series,  roads,  markets,  by-products, 
the  chase,  etc. 

Regulation  of  Cut. — The  criterion  is  the  normal  periodic 
cutting  area.  If  the  same  rotation  applies  throughout  the 
forest  this  area  =  the  total  area  of  the  forest  X  20-=- the  rota- 
tion. Where  there  are  several  rotations,  the  normal  periodic 
cutting  area  is  determined  for  each  species  according  to  the 
ratio  of  the  period  to  the  rotation.  The  total  cutting  area  is 
then  secured  by  adding  together  those  of  each  species.  Since, 
as  a  rule,  the  forests  are  not  normal,  the  actual  periodic  cutting 
area  must  be  modified  to  accord  with  the  distribution  of  the 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  205 

age  classes.  This  modification  is  predicated  on  the  area  of 
mature  and  overmature  stands,  i.e.,  those  of  or  over  the  rotation 
age,  on  the  area  of  the  next  youngest  age  class,  and  the  ratio 
which  the  area  of  all  stands  less  than  half  the  rotation  age 
bears  to  the  area  of  all  stands  more  than  half  the  rotation 
age.  Where  there  is  an  excess  of  mature  stands  more  than 
the  normal  area  is  cut  over;  where  there  is  a  deficit  less  is  cut 
over. 

Stands  of  the  I  period  in  which  reproduction  cuttings  have 
begun  are  entered  with  reduced  areas  in  proportion  to  the  per- 
centage of  the  stand  removed.  A  distribution  of  cutting  areas 
for  the  III,  IV,  V,  and  VI  periods  is  obsolete;  these  stands  and 
their  areas  are  merely  entered  in  the  column  headed  ''  later 
periods."  In  deciding  on  stands  for  the  I  and  II  period  especial 
regard  is  paid  to  age  and  thriftiness,  volume  and  value,  and, 
in  coniferous  stands,  on  the  formation  of  small  cutting  series. 

The  period  method,  strictly  speaking,  is  therefore  no  longer 
used  in  Alsace-Lorraine. 

The  long  period  of  reproduction — often  thirty  to  fifty  years 
— requires  the  assignment  of  stands  for  two  periods — forty 
years — in  advance.  The  stands  intended  for  cutting  in  the  I 
and  II  period  are  usually  calipered;  those  of  the  II  period,  if 
sufficiently  uniform,  may  be  estimated  by  means  of  sample 
areas;  thereto  must  be  added  the  increment  calculated  to  the 
middle  of  each  period. 

The  volume  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  is  one-twentieth  of 
the  period  volume  calculated  separately  by  species.  In  com- 
munal forests  one-fourth  of  the  allowed  cut  is  to  be  subtracted 
(see  above). 

In  selection  forest  the  cut  is  determined  from  the  actual 
increment  and  the  relation  of  the  actual  to  the  normal  growing 
stock  according  to  Heyer's  formula  (method  No.  9).  In  order 
to  determine  the  actual  growing  stock,  all  the  trees  above 
3,;  inches  (8  centimetres)  in  diameter  are  calipered.  The 
actual  increment  is  determined  by  increment  borings  of  trees 
of  various  diameter  classes;  the  normal  growing  stock  according 


206  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

to  the  formula  — ,  where  ^  =  the  mean  annual  increment.     The 

2 

number  of  years  in  which  the  excess  or  deficit  of  the  growing 
stock  is  to  be  equalized  is  determined  for  each  individual  case 
according  to  the  particular  circumstances.  The  cutting  cycle 
(period  between  cuts)  is  not  to  be  placed  too  high:  usually 
sevbn  to  nine  years. 

Planting  and  Road  Plans  are  to  form  a  part  of  every  working 
plan.  The  planting  plan  embraces  not  only  the  methods  of 
artificial  reproduction,  of  nursery  practice,  and  the  source  of 
plant  material,  but  also  the  care  of  cutting  areas  and  of  young 
plantations. 

Revisions  of  the  Working  Plan  are  to  take  place  in  the  middle 
of  the  twenty-year  period.  The  kind  and  degree  of  the  revision 
to  be  undertaken  follows  from  the  demands  made  on  the  plans 
and  the  changes  which,  through  the  methods  of  management 
pursued  or  through  outside  influences,  have  occurred  during  the 
first  half  of  the  working  period  (ten  years).  At  the  end  of  the 
working  period  (twenty  years)  an  entirely  new  working  plan 
is  drawn  up. 

The  essential  points  to  be  considered  in  revision  are:  Changes 
in  area,  the  actual  annual  cut  as  compared  with  the  allowed 
annual  cut  as  regulated,  the  comparison  of  the  volume  yield  of 
stands  cut  over  with  the  estimated  volume  thereof,  the  unfore- 
seen cuttings  not  provided  for  in  the  plan,  the  yield  from  thin- 
nings, the  execution  and  cost  of  planting  and  seeding,  the 
changes  in  servitudes,  the  relation  of  by-products  to  the  scheme 
of  management,  the  completion  of  road  and  trail  buildings,  etc. 

An  interesting  feature  is  the  instruction  that  a  financial 
valuation  of  the  forest  must  be  made  when  a  new  working  plan 
is  prepared  or  an  old  one  revised.  The  data  for  local  yield 
tables  are  to  be  gathered  by  establishing  carefully  chosen,  typical, 
permanent  sample  plots  to  serve  as  "  index  stands." 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  207 

SECTION  TWO 

FRANCE 

The  total  area  of  France  is  132,492,776  acres,  of  which  * 
18.17  per  cent  are  covered  with  forests:  5,187,000  acres,  or  77 
per  cent,  hardwoods;  1,583,270  acres,  or  23  per  cent,  conifers. 
Of  these  6,770,270  acres  the  state  forests  comprise  only  12 
per  cent;  the  communal  forests  under  state  management, 
20.2  per  cent. 

The  forests  of  France  proper  may  be  divided  roughly  into 
(i)  plain  and  (2)  mountain  forests.  Under  (i)  may  be  included 
the  Parisienne  zone,  the  Gironde,  the  Provengale;  under  (2) 
the  Vosges,  Jura,  Alpes,  Plateau  Central,  and  the  Pyrenees. f 
Corresponding  to  the  topography  the  chief  species  are  either 
oak,  beech,  birch,  elm,  chestnut,  and  pine,  or,  in  the  mountains, 
fir,  spruce,  pine,  larch,  and  beech.  La  Savoie  is  the  only  region 
of  France  where  the  spruce  dominates  in  the  forests.  In  the 
Pyrenees  and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  species  are  found 
distinctive  of  the  region,  such  as  hook  pine,  d'Alep  pine,  mari- 
time pine,  cork  oak,  live  oak,  etc. 

The  timber  markets  of  France,  while  not  so  intensively  de- 
veloped as  those  of  Germany,  are  still  almost  as  omnivorous  as 
those  of  the  neighbor  state  on  the  east  because  of  the  relatively 
smaller  per  cent  of  forest  land.f 

The  methods  of  forest  organization  in  France  are  in  striking 
contrast  to  those  in  Germany.  The  conditions  of  forest  owner- 
ship have  strongly  influenced  French  forest  organization  or 
"  Amenagcment,"  as  it  is  called.  Hitherto  it  has  been  gener- 
ally assumed  that  privately  owned  forests  are  not  suited  to  a 
sustained  yield  management.     It  was  thought  that  the  difficulty 

*  From  Hiiffel:  "  Economic  Forestiere." 

t  For  further  details  see  article:  "  European  Study  for  Foresters,"  by  A.  B. 
Recknagel  and  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.;  "  Forestry  Quarterly,"  V^olume  X, 
No.  3,  pp.  417-439.  especially  pp.  429-430,  436-438. 

t  In  France  18.17;  25.88  per  cent  in  Germany. 


PROPERTY  LlBRAnr 

^  C  ^'  -^^  r.fUeffe 


2U8  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

of  foretelling  future  needs  and  the  uncertainty  of  predicting 
yields  were  in  contravention  to  the  basic  principles  of  foresi 
management  for  private  ends  and  that,  furthermore,  the  grow- 
ing of  timber,  especially  of  the  larger  sizes,  is  primarily  the  duty 
of  the  state  and  of  the  communities.  These  views  coincided 
with  the  actual  conditions  of  forest  ownership:  in  the  forests 
owned  by  the  state  high  forest  is  the  rule  with  a  long  rotation;* 
the  forests  owned  communally  are  usually  coppice  with  stand- 
ards; and  the  forests  privately  owned,  simple  coppice.  But 
of  late  conditions  have  changed  substantially:  the  increased 
prices  of  forest  products  and  the  decreased  interest  rate  have 
made  the  growing  of  the  larger  sizes  of  timber  profitable  also 
for  the  private  owner. 

The  chief  features  of  French  forest  organization  are  the 
division  of  area,  the  methods  of  regulating  the  cut,  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  periodic  cutting  areas,  and  the  determination 
of  the  allowed  annual  cut. 

Division  of  Area. — The  state  forests  and  the  forests  under 
state  control  are  divided  into  series.  These  series  are  adjacent 
forest  areas  with  uniform  market  conditions  and  a  sustained 
yield;  they  often  coincide  with  the  ranger  districts  (triages). 
"  By  a  series  is  understood  a  portion  of  the  forest  intended  to 
be  covered  by  a  special  plan  of  utilization  and  consequently  to 
lurnish  a  series  of  annual  cutting  areas."  f 

The  series  are  subdivided  into  sections.  "  By  a  section  is 
understood  a  portion  of  the  forest  distinct  from  the  rest  by  the 
general  method  of  management  "  (coppice,  regular  high  forest, 
selection  high  forest,  etc.).  Accordingly,  the  segregation  into 
sections  is  based,  preferably,  on  the  general  method  of  manage- 
ment (regime)  and  on  the  specific  silvicultural  method  of  repro- 
duction (mode  de  traitement). 

The  series  are  further  divided  into  periodic  cutting  areas 
called  "  affectations." 

The  division  by  silvical  units,  i.e.,  stands,  is  called  the  par- 

*  140,  160,  200,  and  even  240  years. 

t  Tassy:  "  I^tudes  sur  I'amenagement  des  forets." 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  209 

celle.  These  parcelles  are  the  basis  of  the  whole  forest  organiza- 
tion and  of  the  course  of  the  management.  In  each  forest  dis- 
trict (canton)  those  portions  are  to  be  segregated  which  differ 
in  species  or  in  age,  or  in  site,  exposure,  growth  or  density 
of  stocking,  in  such  a  way  that  each  portion  or  parcelle  can  be 
handled  identically  throughout.  In  the  records  the  parcelles 
are  classed  as  divisions  if  they  are  permanent,  as  subdivisions 
if  only  temporary.  The  parcelles  are  marked  by  stones  at  the 
intersections  of  the  boundary  Hnes;  the  boundaries  themselves 
by  narrow  cleared  lines  or  by  signs. 

The  forest  description  of  the  individual  parcelles  is  accord- 
ing to  the  following  form.* 

Column    I.  Cantons,  i.e.,  forest  district,  or  block. 

2.  Divisions  and  subdivisions. 

3.  I  Volume  I  subdivisions. 

4.  J  Contents  of  the       [  divisions. 

5.  Site  and  elevation. 

6.  Exposure. 

7.  Slope. 

8.  Soil. 

9.  Percentage  of  each  species  in  the  mixture. 

10.  Age. 

11.  Character  of  the  stand. 

12.  Growth. 

13.  Remarks. 

Method  of  Determining  the  Cut. — The  cut  is  determined  by 
the  area  period  method  as  appears  from  the  following  tabulated 
form  for  working  plans. f 

Column   I.  Number  of  the  affectation. 

2.  Names  of  the  cantons. 

3.  Divisions  and  subdivisions. 

*  Called  "  Etat  descriptif  des  divisions  et  subdivisions." 

t  Reglement  general  des  exploitations  par  periode  pendant  la  premiere 
revolution  (revolution  equals  rotation).  See  also  Methode  de  Masson,  Methode 
de  1883  (French  Method),  Methode  du  Controle,  Nos.  3,  10,  and  13,  respectively. 


210 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


Column  4 

5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

lO 

II 

12 
13 
14 
15 
16 

17 
18, 
19 
20, 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 


Area  in  hectares  of  the 


subdivisions, 
divisions. 
Site,  exposure,  soil. 
Percentage  of  each  species. 
Density  and  growth  of  the  stand, 
present, 
at  the  time  of  cutting. 

final  cuttings  f  ordinary, 
in  hectares       [  extraordinary. 
Thinnings,  in  hectares. 

final  cuttings  |  ordinary, 
in  hectares       [  extraordinary. 
Thinnings,  in  hectares. 

-r-r-r  .        ,  .  .         ,  f    final. 

III  period  cuttmgs,  m  hectares  i  ^,  . 

^  ^  [  thinnmgs 

IV  period  cuttmgs,  in  hectares 


Age 

I  period 

Thi: 

II  period 


V  period  cuttings,  in  hectares 

yi  period  cuttings,  in  hectares 
Remarks. 


thinnings. 

final. 

thinnings. 

final. 

thinninofs. 


The  number  and  length  of  the  periods  vary  with  the  species 
and  the  locality.  For  oak  in  central  France  eight  periods  of 
twenty-five  years  each  are  formed ;  for  beech  usually  six  periods 
of  twenty  years  each ;  for  fir  four  or  five  or  more  periods  of  thirty 
years  each.  The  number  of  the  periods  and  their  length  require 
the  approval  of  the  minister.* 

The  rotation  age  is  only  fixed  tentatively  "  without  attempt- 
ing to  fix  it  definitely  by  applying  experiences  whose  value  is 
often  only  specious."  f 

For  the  state  forests  a  rotation  age  is  chosen  which  corre- 


*  Formerly  of  the  Emperor  himself  by  a  decree. 
t  From  a  French  working  plan. 


THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS  211 

spends  to  the  maximum  possible  yield  of  the  most  useful  classes 
of  materials.  This  has  resulted  in  a  conservative  tendency 
showing  itself  in  the  present  conditions  of  the  forests  of  France 
and  of  Alsace-Lorraine.  In  general  the  adopted  rotations  are 
distributed  as  follows: 


Reg.  high  forest  . 
Select,  high  forest 


Rotation    Age 


Under  loo  years  100-150  years 


35-7%  of  total  area  43.1%  of  total  area 
9.8%  of  total  area  43.7%  of  total  area 


150-200  years 


21.2%  of  total  area 
46.5%  of  total  area 


Distribution  of  the  Periodic  Cutting  Areas. — This  is  the  most 
characteristic  feature  of  French  forest  organization.  The 
periodic  cutting  areas  are  to  be  so  arranged  that  they  com- 
prise the  area  of  each  period  without  a  break  or  interrupting 
area  of  another  period.  This  is  in  direct  contradiction  to  the 
aim  of  the  German  forest  organization,  particularly  of  the 
Saxon.  The  reasons  given  for  this  distribution  are  simplicity 
in  reproduction  cuttings;  of  regularity  of  formation  of  the  pe- 
riodic cutting  areas  with  their  narrow  side  toward  the  prevail- 
ing storm  direction  and  bounded  wherever  possible  by  roads. 
Tassy  in  his  "  Etudes  sur  I'amenagement  des  forets  "  lays 
especial  stress  on  the  undesirability  of  breaking  up  the  periodic 
cutting  areas  into  cutting  series.* 

This  principle  has  been  followed  in  the  working  plans  for 
the  state  and  communal  forests.  The  periodic  cutting  areas 
are  systematically  grouped  in  the  maps  and  on  the  ground. 
The  immediate  consequence  is  that  many  stands  are  cut  not  at 
the  time  of  their  maturity,  but  too  soon  or  too  late;  furthermore, 
the  reproduction  cuttings  become  very  large  and  thus,  in  the 
future,  there  will  be  extensive  stands  of  even  age.  Both  con- 
sequences are  attended  with  drawbacks  of  management    (in- 

*  Tassy,  troisieme  etude,  Chapter  IV,  Section  3,  "  Formation  des  afifectations 
conform6ment  aux  regies  d'assiette." 


212'        THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

creased  danger  of  windfall,  fire,  insects,  fungi,  etc.),  even  though 
these  are  less  in  France  by  reason  of  the  prevalence  of  the  nat- 
ural reproduction  and  the  predominance  of  hardwoods  than 
they  would  be,  for  example,  under  German  conditions. 

Determination  of  the  Allowed  Annual  Cut  is  both  by  volumes 
and  by  values.  For  the  cuttings  of  the  first  period  a  special 
cutting  plan  or  felling  budget  is  drawn  up  (Reglement  special 
des  exploitations  pour  la  premiere  periode)  in  which  the  cutting 
areas  and  volumes  are  entered,  arranged  according  to  the 
divisions  and  subdivisions  and  according  to  final  cuttings 
(Coupes  principales)  further  divided  into  Coupes  ordinaires 
and  Coupes  extraordinaires,  and  thinnings  (Coupes  inter- 
mediaires). 

The  volume  of  the  Coupes  principales  is  determined  first  by 
caliper  measurements  entered  separately  by  species;  the  volumes 
are  then  computed  from  volume  tables  based  on  the  contents 
of  sample  trees  of  the  various  diameter  classes. 

The  increment  for  the  years  elapsing  between  the  estimate 
and  the  cutting  is  disregarded  in  the  computation. 

Thinnings  are  regulated  by  area;  their  volume  is  taken  from 
the  experience  of  the  preceding  decade. 

To  the  determination  of  the  allowed  annual  cut  by  volume 
is  added  one  by  values  (Evaluation  en  argent  de  la  possibilite). 
This  is  based  on  the  estimate  of  the  classes  of  timber  which  is 
made  for  each  species  and  for  each  class  on  the  value  according 
to  the  prevailing  prices  (prix  sur  pied  par  nature  de  mar- 
chandises) .  Adding  the  values  of  each  class  gives  the  total  value 
of  the  felling  budget. 

The  regulation  of  cut  in  coppice  and  in  coppice  with  stand- 
ards is  by  area.  Coppice  systems  have  reached  a  point  of 
development  in  France  far  in  advance  of  that  in  other  European 
countries.  The  regulation  of  coppice  dates  from  the  ordinances 
of  Colbert  in  1669.  The  division  of  area  depends  on  the  rota- 
tion age  of  the  coppice  under  the  standards.  In  the  State  for- 
ests 50  per  cent  have  a  coppice  rotation  of  twenty  to  thirty 
years;   46  per  cent  have  a  rotation  of  over  thirty  years  in  the 


THE   THEORY  AND   PEACTICE  OF   WORKING   PLANS  213 

communal  forests  77  per  cent  have  a  rotation  of  twenty  to  thirty 
years,  20  per  cent  a  rotation  of  over  thirty  years.*  The  stand- 
ards are  arranged  by  age  classes  and  distributed  equally  on  the 
area.  These  standards  are  either  two,  three,  or  four  times  the 
rotation  age  (baliveaux  de  I'age,  modernes,  and  anciens,  respect- 
ively). The  cut  of  standards  is  determined  by  the  number 
of  stems  of  each  class  and  is  usually  accomplished  with  the  utmost 
regularity. 


SECTION  THREE 

AUSTRIA 


Austria,  exclusive  of  Hungary,!  contains  74,101,976  acres, 
of  which  24,125,888  acres  or  32.6  per  cent  are  forested. |  This 
puts  Austria  fourth  in  the  rank  of  timbered  countries  of  Europe, 
preceded  only  by  Sweden  with  49  per  cent  forest  area,  Fin- 
land with  46  per  cent,  and  Russia  with  39  per  cent.  The 
ownership  of  Austrian  forests,  which  has  profoundly  influ- 
enced the  development  of  forestry  there,  is  as  follows:  State 
forests  II  per  cent  of  the  total  area,  communal  forests  14 
per  cent,  church  forests  17  per  cent,  private  forests  59  per 
cent.§ 

Austria  can  be  conveniently  divided  into  five  great  dis- 
tricts; these,  with  their  percentage  of  forested  area  and  the 
per  cent  of  timber  tracts  over  2500  acres  in  size,  are  as 
follows : 


*  For  simple  coppice  56  per  cent  of  the  State  forests  and  76  per  cent  of  the 
communal  forests  ha\e  a  rotation  age  of  twenty  to  thirty  years. 

t  The  differences  of  race  and  language  have  resulted  in  all  but  the  political 
separation  of  the  two  countries. 

X  In  Hungary  it  is  27.8  per  cent,  in  Germany  25.88  per  cent,  in  France  18.17 
per  cent. 

§  Data  from  "  Die  Holzproduktion  Oesterreichs.  K.  K.  Ackerbauministerium, 
1907.  See  also  "  A  Glimpse  of  .\ustrian  Forestry,"  by  Theodore  S.  Woolsey, 
Jr.,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Fstcrs.,  Vol.  IX,  No.  i,  pp.  7  to  37. 


214  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

rr   -r  %  of  tracts 

District  and  included  Provinces  f^^'J^^t  L^^  2,500  acres 

torei^t  area  ^^^  ^^^ 

Danube  (Niederosterreich,  Obcrosterreich) 34-2  44  ■  6 

Alps  (Salzburg,  Tirol,  Steiermark,  Karnten,  and 

Krain) 41.8  41  •.  i 

Coast  (Kiistenland,  Dalmatia) 29.6  37-7 

Northwest  (Bohemia,  Mahren;  Schlesien) 29.  i  65.7 

Northeast  (Galicia,  Bukowina) 27.7  69 . 6 

Totals 32.6  54.3 

of  which  nearly  one-half  are  tracts  of  7500  acres  in  size  or  more; 
nearly  one-quarter,  or  half  of  the  half  are  tracts  of  25,000  acres 
or  more. 

This  division  corresponds  fairly  well  with  the  general  topog- 
raphy and  the  forest  conditions.  The  Alps  and  the  northeast 
districts  (Carpathians)  comprise  tremendous  mountain  ranges; 
the  Alps  continue  in  diminished  form  through  the  coast  district 
to  the  southeast  and  break  down  northward  into  the  rolling 
plains  and  foothills  of  the  Danube  district,  this  foothill  charac- 
ter is  preserved  through  most  of  the  northwest  district  adjoin- 
ing thereon,  grading  gradually  into  the  main  ranges  of  the 
Carpathians,  the  divide  of  which  forms  the  boundary  between 
the  northern  districts  of  Austria  and  Hungary. 

The  coniferous  species  in  Austria  cover  over  60  per  cent  of 
the  total  forest  area;  21  per  cent  are  hardwoods;  the  balance 
of  19  per  cent  are  mixed  stands.  Spruce  predominates  with  44 
per  cent  of  the  total  forest  area,  it  occurs  at  almost  all  eleva- 
tions from  the  plains  up  to  timber  Hne,  only  in  Dalmatia  is  it 
lacking.  Scotch  pine  is  next,  with  7  per  cent  of  the  total  for- 
est area,  chiefly  occurring  on  the  plains.  The  remainder  of  the 
60  per  cent  of  coniferous  stands  are  mixtures  of  various  species 
— fir,  Austrian  and  other  pines,  and  larch. 

Of  the  hardwood  stands  which  cover  21  per  cent  of  the 
total  forest  area,  beech  leads  the  Hst  with  10  per  cent,  the 
remaining  11  per  cent  are  stands  of  oak  with  beech,  or  horn- 
beam with  beech,  or  of  aspen,  alder,  birch,  etc. 

The  19  per  cent  of  mixed  stands  are  admixtures  of  larch, 
Pinus  cembra  ("  Zirbe  "),  ash,  elm,  maple,  chestnut,  etc. 


THE    THEORY    AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  215 

Austria  shows  within  its  boundaries  the  greatest  variety  of 
forest  conditions.*  All  phases  of  vegetation  are  encountered 
from  the  semi-tropical  shores  of  the  Adriatic  grading  through 
the  sandy  and  often  rocky  coastal  plains,  through  the  mount- 
ing foothills  to  the  dolomitic  or  archaic  fastnesses  of  the  Alps 
and  Carpathians,  where  all  tree  growth  is  dwarfed  and  even  the 
lower  stands  arc  constantly  threatened  with  rock  sHdes  and 
avalanches.  The  forest  products  vary  accordingly  from  the 
finest  timbers  with  high  rotations  down  to  mere  fuel  woods  with 
the  shortest  of  coppice  rotations.  Similarly,  some  forests  are 
in  immediate  proximity  to  dense  centres  of  population — as, 
e.g.,  the  Wienerwald  just  outside  the  gates  of  Vienna — permitting 
almost  perfect  utilization  because  of  a  voracious  market;  some 
forests,  on  the  other  hand,  are  still  virgin  and  as  yet  out  of 
profitable  reach  of  the  lumberman's  axe.  Gradually,  though, 
the  increasing  prices  of  timber  are  making  accessible  at  a  profit 
even  the  stands  most  remote  from  centres  of  population,  and 
soon  there  will  be  no  virgin  forests  in  Austria. f 

Again,  the  task  of  forest  management  is,  sometimes,  as  in 
Salzburg,  burdened  by  servitudes;  elsewhere  no  such  restric- 
tions exist.  As  a  result  the  market  varies  greatly,  but  in  gen- 
eral it  is  developing  rapidly,  especially  in  the  export  trade 
to  Germany  and  Italy  and  other  European  or  Oriental  coun- 
tries. 

Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  Austrian  timberlands  are  man- 
aged as  high  forest,  of  which  one-third  is  selection  forest 
mostly  in    the  "high"  protection    zone  of    the  Alps;    12  per 

*  See  "  Methods  of  Natural  Regeneration  in  Austria  "  and  "  Methods  of 
Artificial  Regeneration  in  Austria,"  Articles  VIII  and  IX,  respectively,  in  the 
series:  "  Some  Aspects  of  luiropean  Forestry,"  F.  Q.,  Vol.  XI,  No.  4,  pp. 
470-498,  reprinted  in  1913. 

t  The  Austrian  government  now  constructs  its  own  logging  devices,  sawmills, 
railroads,  chutes,  flumes,  etc.;  these  are  used  by  the  purchaser  of  the  stumpage 
for  which  use  he  pays  a  proportionately  higher  stumpage  price.  Formerly  stump- 
age  was  sold  as  in  America,  and  the  purchaser  put  in  his  own  improvements; 
as  rapidly  as  possible  these  improvements  were  then  bought  up  by  the  govern- 
ment and  paid  for  in  cash  or  in  timber. 


216  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

cent  are  managed  as  coppice;  3  per  cent  as  coppice  with 
standards. 

Forest  organization  in  Austria  has  reached  a  remarkable 
state  of  perfection  despite  the  exceedingly  irregular  conditions 
as  portrayed.  The  Austrian  Kameraltaxe  (Austrian  formula — 
see  method  No.  5)  dates  from  1788;  in  the  Tyrol  a  volume 
period  method  was  in  use  in  the  sixteenth  century.  From  these 
early  beginnings  a  systematic  forest  organization  has  been  built 
up  and  extended  even  to  the  most  remote  regions,*  comprising 
not  only  the  state  forests  but  also  the  large  tracts  privately 
owned.  Practically  half  of  the  forested  area  of  Austria  is  under 
working  plans. 

The  salient  features  of  Austrian  working  plans  as  contained 
in  the  government  code  of  1901  f   are  as  follows: 

Division  of  Area  begins  with  the  setting  aside  of  protection 
forest  wherever  necessary;   it  is  usually  divided  from  the  lower 


*  For  example,  the  remote  Bukowina,  lying  between  Russia  and  Rumania 
on  the  extreme  eastern  border  of  Austria,  shows  73  per  cent  of  its  1,113,970  acres 
of  forest  covered  by  detailed  working  plans  in  perfect  operation.  When  this 
province  was  acquired  by  Austria  in  1775  from  Turkey  it  was  largely — nearly 
50  per  cent  of  the  total  area — in  trackless  virgin  forest.  The  first  work  of  forest 
organization,  that  of  making  provisional  working  plans,  was  completed  in  1818. 
About  1850  the  preparation  of  final  working  plans  was  begun  on  the  basis  of  period 
area  method;  failing  of  systematic  revisions  these  soon  became  mere  waste  paper, 
the  more  so  since  it  was  impossible,  for  lack  of  markets  and  of  logging  facilities, 
to  carry  out  the  cuttings  as  planned.  In  1875  a  thorough  reorganization  of  the 
forest  administration  in  the  Bukowina  was  begun  looking  to  the  opening  up  of  the 
hitherto  inaccessible  timber  resources.  A  section  of  forest  organization  (Ein- 
richtungsabteilung)  was  created  in  the  Bukowina  district  similar  to  that  already 
existing  in  all  the  other  district  offices  of  the  empire.  A  thorough  reconnaissance 
(Durchforschung)  was  made  and  on  this  basis  new  provisional  working  plans 
prepared,  beginning,  of  course,  with  the  more  accessible  forests.  As  the  data 
and  utilization  warranted  it,  these  were  transformed  into  regular  plans  with  fre- 
quent revisions,  on  the  model  of  those  prescribed  for  the  rest  of  Austria.  For  the 
development  of  working  plans  practice  in  the  provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzego- 
vina, see  "  Die  forstlichen  Verhaltnisse  und  Einrichtung  Bosniens  und  der  Her- 
zegovina," L.  Dimitz,  Vienna,  1905,  briefed  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  Ill,  No.  2,  pp. 
143-150. 

t  "  Instruktion  fiir  die  Begrenzung,  Vermessung  und  Betriebseinrichtung 
der  Oesterreichischen  Staats  und  Fondsforste,"  3d  edition,  1901. 


THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  217 

slopes  by  a  trail  following  the  appropriate  contour.  This  pro- 
tection belt  is  always  managed  as  strictest  selection  forest. 
The  management  for  the  rest  of  the  working  unit  is  then  decided 
upon  and  the  area  divided  into  "  Betriebsklassen  "  (working 
groups),  cutting  series,  compartments,  and  subcompartments. 

An  area  with  a  uniform  silvicultural  method  and  rotation, 
vmiform  market  and  constituting  a  single  logging  unit  is  called 
a  Betriehsklasse;  it  is  further  divided  into  cutting  series,  whose 
formation  depends  on  the  topography,  the  species,  and  the 
method  of  reproduction.  A  single  cutting  series  does  not  usually 
comprise  more  than  three  compartments.  The  boundaries  of 
the  cutting  series  are  topographical  or  artificial — roads,  com- 
partment lines,  etc.  These  boundaries  are  to  be  cleared  of  tim- 
ber to  a  width  of  from  1 6  to  26  feet,  in  order  that  a  wind-resist- 
ing mantle  may  form  along  the  edges  of  the  stands.  Cutting 
series  are  shown  on  the  maps  by  arrows. 

The  compartments  (Abteilungen)  are  units  of  convenience; 
their  shape  is  quadrangular,  2600  to  3300  feet  long  and  about 
two- thirds  as  wide.  The  boundary  lines  are  topographic, 
cultural  (roads,  railroads,  etc.),  or  else  artificial.  The  last  are 
either  ''  Schneisen  "  and  are  usually  made  6|  feet  wide  (2 
metres),  or  are  "  Wirtschafts  Streifen,"  with  the  regular  width 
of  16  to  26  feet  (5-8  metres). 

The  division  into  subcompartments  (Unterabteilungen)  is 
based  (i)  on  differences  in  required  treatment  of  which  the  fol- 
lowing are  distinguished:  High  forest  with  clear  cutting;  high 
forest  with  shelterwood  cutting;  high  forest  with  selection  cut- 
ting; simple  coppice;  coppice  with  standards;  forest  burdened 
with  servitudes;  protection  forest,  voluntary  or  enforced  by 
law:  or  (2)  on  differences  in  species  if  the  stands  are  pure: 
or  (3)  on  substantial  differences  in  percentage  of  mixture  if 
the  stands  are  mixed :  or  (4)  on  differences  in  average  age,  ex- 
ceeding ten  years  in  young,  twenty  years  in  old  high  forest, 
five  years  in  coppice  forest:  or  (5)  on  marked  differences  in 
site  quality  or  stand  quality  as  shown  by  substantial  differences 
in  the  height  growth  of  equal-aged  stands:    or  (6)  on  marked 


218  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

differences  in  the  density  of  stocking:  or  (7)  on  need  of  artificial 
reproduction. 

The  minimum  size  of  a  subcompartment  is  i|  acres.  The 
boundaries  are  marked  with  stenciled  numbers  painted  in 
oil  color  on  the  corner  trees  or  else  by  means  of  symbols  made 
with  a  tree  scribe;  in  young  stands  narrow  alleys  are  cleared. 

Estimates  and  Forest  Description. — As  a  general  rule  yield 
tables  are  constructed  for  the  various  silvicultural  methods  of 
management,  species,  and  site  classes,  based  on  sample  areas 
measured  during  the  progress  of  the  field-work.  The  following 
form  is  used: 

Column    I.  Age. 

2.  Number  of  stems  per  hectare. 

3.  Basal  area  at  1.3  M.  above  ground,  in  square 

metres. 

4.  Average  diameter  at  1.3  M.  above  ground,  in 

centimetres. 

5.  Average  height  in  metres. 

6.  Average  annual  height  increment  in  metres. 

7.  Volume  by  timber  classes,  in  cubic  metres. 

8.  Increment — current  annual,  in  cubic  metres. 

9.  Increment — mean  annual,  in  cubic  metres. 
10.  Increment  per  cent — mean  annual. 

These  yield  tables  are  compared  with  the  published  yield 
tables  of  the  International  Association  of  Forest  Experiment 
Stations. 

The  description  of  the  individual  stand  covers  the  following 
phases : 

(i)  Soil  and  site. 

(2)  Species,  percentage  of  mixture  and  general  form  of  the 
stand.  The  percentage  of  mixture  is  expressed  in  tenths  accord- 
ing to  the  area  occupied  by  each  species.  Shelterwood  cuttings 
are  considered  as  preparatory  if  .8  of  the  original  volume 
remains;  as  seed  cuttings  if  .5  to  .8  remains;  as  removal  cut- 
tings if  less  than  .5  remains. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 


219 


(3)  Both  the  average  age  and  the  age  limits  are  given. 
The  table  of  age-class  distribution  takes  the  following  form: 


Column    I 

Compartment  number. 

2 

Subcompartment  letter. 

3 

Site  and  stand  quality. 

4 

Barrens  and  blanks. 

5 

1  I  stands  1-20  f  partly  stocked 
J       years  old      [  fully  stocked 

6 

7 

II  stands  21-40  years  old 

8 

III  stands  41-60  years  old 

9 

IV  stands  61-80  years  old 

in  hectare 

10 

V  stands  81-100  years  old 

II 

VI  stands  101-120  years  old 

12 

VII  stands  over  1 20  years  old 

13 

Total  area. 

14 

1  Area  in    f  of  the  areas  under  reproduction. 
J  hectares  [  of  the  areas  under  selection  forest 

15 

16 

Remarks. 

A  separate  age-class  table  is  prepared  for  each  "  Betriebs- 
klasse  "  (working  group). 

Areas  in  process  of  reproduction  are  entered  in  full  in  Column 
14.  But,  if  the  cutting  is  shelterwood,  the  proper  propor- 
tions of  the  areas  appear  also  in  the  age  class  (Columns  4-12) 
so  as  to  show  the  existing  proportion  of  old  timber,  young  growth, 
and  blanks. 

Below  the  actual  area  of  each  age  class,  the  normal  area 
thereof  is  entered  for  the  purposes  of  comparison. 

(4)  As  index  to  the  yield  the  following  factors  are  entered: 

(a)  The  average  height  of  the  stand. 

(b)  The  sum  of  the  basal  areas.  ^ 

(c)  The  site  quality  and  species  occupying  it. 

(d)  The  present  density  in  tenths  of  1.0  =  fully  stocked. 
Stands  are  to  be  considered  fully  stocked  if  the  actual  volume 
per  hectare  corresponds  to  the  volume  given  in  the  yield  table 
for  the  same  age,  site  quality,  species,  and  silvicultural  method. 


220 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 


(5)  The  volume  of  those  stands  which  are  to  be  cut  in  the 
next  two  decades. 

(6)  The  mean  annual  increment  prorated  to  the  end  of  the 
rotation. 

The  data  on  volume  and  increment  of  the  younger  stands  is 
taken  from  yield  tables;  in  stands  approaching  maturity  exact 
measurements  in  the  field  are  required.  Stands  of  varying 
density  and  all  under  5  acres  in  size  are  to  be  calipered  com- 
pletely. In  very  irregular  stands  (e.g.,  mixed  species,  un- 
even-aged, etc.),  sample  plots  are  measured  to  cover  from  5  to  10 
per  cent  of  the  total  area.  The  volume  is  calculated  from  the 
calipered  diameters  by  measuring  average  trees,  so  chosen 
that  in  height  and  diameter  they  represent  the  stand  in  minia- 
ture. 

These  data  are  combined  in  a  tabular  forest  description 
which  takes  the  following  form  (general  stand  table) : 

Column    I.    Locality. 

2.  Compartment — number. 

3.  Subcompartment — letter. 

4.  Soil  and  slope. 

5.  Species,  per  cent  of  mixture  and  general  form  of 

stand. 

6.  Age  of  stand — years. 

7.  Average  height  of  stand — metres. 

8.  Total  basal  area — square  metres. 
Site  quaHty. 

Density  of  stand  in  decimals  of  i.o. 
Area  in  hectares. 

per  hectare, 
for  total  area. 
Mean  annual  increment  prorated  J  per  hectare 


9- 
10. 
II. 
12. 

13- 

14. 

15- 
16. 

17- 
18. 
19. 


Volume  in  cubic  metres 


to  rotation  age,  in  cubic  metres 
Volume  increment  per  cent. 
Quality  increment  per  cent. 
Index  per  cent. 
Remarks. 


for  total  area. 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  221 

This  is  supplemented  by  a  general  forest  description  for 
the  entire  area,  covering  all  of  the  forest  conditions — natural, 
legal,  political,  economic,  commercial,  fmancial,  and  adminis- 
trative, including  personnel. 

Determination  of  the  Cut  is  for  a  decade  in  advance.  The 
allowed  cut  is  divided  into  final  cuttings,  thinnings,  and  acci- 
dental cuttings.  The  basis  of  regulation  is  the  normal  periodic 
cutting  area.  If  the  conditions  are  regular  this  is  adhered  to 
as  strictly  as  possible.  Often  there  are  large. amounts  of  over- 
mature timber,  as,  e.g.,  in  the  \argin  forests  of  the  Bukowina 
mentioned  in  foot-note  preceding,  where  with  a  120-year  rota- 
tion the  stands  over  100  years  old  aggregate  116,592  hectares 
instead  of  the  normal  (based  on  age-class  relation)  of  33,221 
hectares;  an  excess  of  83,371  hectares.*  In  these  overmature 
stands  the  increment  merely  offsets  the  decay  and  their  inter- 
est yield  on  the  investment  is  nil.  To  substitute  for  them 
young,  thriftily  growing  stands  was  axiomatic,  but  required 
cutting  in  excess  of  the  normally  allowed  area.  The  amount 
of  excess  permissible  was  fixed  on  the  following  three  considera- 
tions: (i)  Not  so  great  that  reproduction,  natural  or  artificial, 
cannot  keep  pace  with  the  cutting,  and  so  imperil  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  forest;  (2)  not  so  great  as  to  depress  prices  by 
glutting  the  market  and  thus  losing  all  the  financial  advantage 
gained  by  stimulated  increment;  (3)  not  so  great  as  to  cause 
too  serious  disturbances  of  the  sustained  yield.  These  con- 
siderations were  met  by  a  sHding  scale  of  gradually  approaching 
the  normal  as  follows:  In  the  I  period  of  twenty  years  1.5  the 
normal  area  can  be  cut  (sometimes  1.6  in  the  first  decade,  1.4 
in  the  second  decade);  in  the  II  period  of  twenty  years  1.3 
of  the  normal  area  can  be  cut;  in  the  III  period  of  twenty 
years  1.2  of  the  normal  can  be  cut,  and  thenceforth  approx- 
imately the  normal  amount  only  is  to  be  cut.  During  the  decade 
ending  1910  the  average  annual  cutting  area  in  the  Bukowina 


*  "  Die     Forstwirtschaft     und     ihre      Industrien    .    .    ,    im    Herzogthume 
Bukowina,"  by  E.  Guzman,  Vienna,  1901. 


222  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

was  3008  hectares,  or  approximately  1.5  the  normal  of  2031 
hectares. 

The  rotation  age  is  determined  on  the  basis  of  highest  net 
annual  income  (forest  rent)  unless  there  are  cogent  reasons,  such 
as  legal  constraints,  logging  or  market  conditions,  for  keeping 
a  higher  rotation.  Stands  are  usually  considered  mature, 
i.e.,  of  proper  cutting  age,  whose  index  per  cent  has  sunk  below 
the  adopted  interest  per  cent  on  the  investment  and  whose 
cutting  will  not  interfere  with  the  proper  development  of  the 
cutting  series. 

In  addition  to  the  stands  thus  mature,  the  cuttings  of  the 
ensuing  working  period  are  to  include  all  very  open  stands  and 
stands  with  unsatisfactory  increment  whose  reproduction  is 
obviously  desirable;  and  also  such  stands  as  must  be  sacrificed 
to  the  proper  progress  of  the  cutting  series. 

The  aim  is,  obviously,  to  approach  a  normal  distribution  of 
the  age  classes.  The  length  of  time  required  in  this  approach 
to  normal  is  fixed  tentatively.  To  aid  in  this  and  in  the  fixa- 
tion of  the  decade  cutting  area  the  results  of  past  cuttings  are 
reviewed,  especially  in  their  effect  on  the  development  of  the 
proper  age-class  distribution;  this  last  is  shown  graphically 
for  decades  past. 

Based  on  these  considerations  the  decade  cutting  area  is 
finally  fixed  and  the  volume  thereon,  increased  by  adding  the 
increment  to  the  middle  of  the  decade,  constitutes  the  allowed 
cut  for  the  decade. 

In  the  selection  forest  of  the  protective  belt,  everything  is 
subordinated  to  the  protective  function  and  hence  no  sustained 
annual  cut  is  determined,  but  the  allowed  cut  merely  approxi- 
mated from  experience. 

Control  and  revision  of  the  working  plan  which  is  docu- 
mented in  bound  form  and  called  an  "  Operat." — The  following 
current  records  are  kept: 

(i)  The  memoranda  book  ("  Gedenkbuch ")  wherein  all 
changes  other  than  those  changes  which  result  from  the  cuttings 
prescribed  in  the  working  plan  are  entered.     Changes  in  sur- 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  223 

veys;  in  logging  methods;  substantial  injuries  to  the  forest  by- 
man,  climate,  fire,  etc.;  the  progress  of  the  hunt  and  of  fishing; 
personnel;  statistics  of  volume  yield  and  money  returns;  forest 
experiments,  etc.  It  corresponds  closely  to  the  general  part 
of  the  Prussian  "  Hauptmerkbuch." 

(2)  The  management  book  corresponds  to  the  Prussian 
control  book,  together  with  the  specific  part  of  the  Prussian 
"  Hauptmerkbuch."  It  is  divided  in  two  parts:  The  first  gives 
for  each  subcompartment  (figure  of  control — "  Kontrollfigur  ") 
the  yield  of  cuttings  by  classes  of  material  and  area,  the  com- 
pleted seeding  and  planting,  and  the  early  care  of  the  stand. 
The  second  part  contains  the  total  annual  cut  of  the  whole 
forest  (working  unit,  "  Wirtschaftsbezirk  ")  compared  with  the 
estimate. 

(3)  Index  of  changes  in  status,  comparison  of  the  total 
annual  actual  with  the  allowed  cut  in  volume  and  area;  sum- 
mary of  accidental — i.e.,  unforeseen — cuttings,  of  plantings, 
of  receipts  and  expenditures,  of  net  income,  etc. 

Regular  revisions  are  made  in  the  last  year  of  the  ten-year 
working  period;  revisions  may  be  necessary  between  times  if 
unforeseen  contingencies  occur,  such  as  large  windfall,  insect 
damage,  change  of  area,  etc.  The  most  important  tasks  of  the 
revision  are:  First,  the  determination  of  whether  the  provisions 
of  the  working  plan  just  terminating  were  observed  in  every 
detail;  whether  and  to  what  extent  the  departures  therefrom 
were  justified;  and  whether  the  prescriptions  of  the  working 
plan  proved  correct,  singly  and  collectively.  Second,  the  cor- 
rection of  the  existing  maps  and  estimates  which  may  neces- 
sitate the  collection  of  additional  field  data.  Third,  the  prep- 
aration of  the  working  plan  for  the  next  ten  years. 


224  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS 

SECTION  FOUR 

RESUME 

A  review  of  the  practice  of  working  plans  in  Europe  shows 
that  forest  organization  developed  very  differently  in  the 
various  countries.  The  differences  consist  in  the  form  of 
the  working-plan  document;  in  the  length  of  the  working 
period;  in  the  methods  of  estimating,  forest  description,  map- 
ping; in  the  principles  and  nomenclature  of  the  divisions  of  area. 
These  differences  arose  primarily  out  of  differences  in  the 
forest  conditions  to  which  the  methods  of  forest  organization 
were  adapted;  in  part  also  because  the  various  practices  de- 
veloped independently  of  one  another.  Many  of  the  rules  and 
regulations  for  working  plans  remained  practically  unknown 
outside  of  their  immediate  sphere  of  application. 

Despite  these  differences,  the  various  existing  methods  of 
forest  organization  are  very  similar  in  the  essentials  of  working 
plans.  For  all,  the  most  important  task  is  recognized  to  be  the 
designation  of  the  areas  which  are  to  be  reproduced.  For  this 
the  character  and  composition  of  the  individual  stands  is 
scrutinized.  The  more  unfavorable  the  condition  of  the  stands 
is  in  regard  to  growth,  density,  etc.,  the  more  is  their  early 
cutting  indicated.  At  the  same  time,  however,  all  the  existing 
methods  demand  that  the  stands  are  not  to  be  considered  by 
themselves  alone,  but  in  conjunction  with  the  whole  area  of 
which  they  form  a  part  and  their  treatment  decided  upon 
accordingly.  In  general  agreement  are,  furthermore,  the 
methods  of  determining  the  allowed  cut.  At  first,  regulation 
was  by  volume  alone,  as  fitted  the  irregular  conditions  encoun- 
tered; as  management  progressed,  area  came  to  play  a  more 
and  more  important  part  in  regulation.  Area  and  volume 
combined  are  now  the  basis  of  regulation  in  all  intensively 
managed  forests.  In  Prussia,  Austria,  Saxony,  and  other 
countries,  the  criterion  of  yield  is  the  normal  periodic  cutting 
area  wherever  the  conditions  are  sufficiently  regular.     This  area 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  225 

is  increased  or  diminished  according  to  the  distribution  of  the 
age  classes.  The  volume  on  the  periodic  cutting  area  consti- 
tutes the  allowed  periodic  cut  and  affords,  by  volume  regula- 
tion, a  check  on  the  sustained  character  of  the  yield. 

The  consequent  progress  of  forest  organization  is  also  very 

similar.     In  the  formula  -  or  a  — ,  which  represents  the  annual 
r  r 

or  the  periodic  cutting  area,  respectively,  r,  the  rotation,  is 
set  as  a  definite  figure,  as  indeed  is  necessary  for  the  execution 
of  a  working  plan  during  a  definite  working  period.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  the  rotation  age  is  not  a  fixed  quantity, 
when  considered  for  a  longer  period  of  time,  but  a  varying 
quantity  influenced  by  the  changing  conditions  of  management. 
To  recognize  these  conditions  and  to  set  forth  clearly  their 
influence  is  the  common  task  of  all  methods  of  forest  organiza- 
tion, a  task  more  important  than  the  form  of  the  working- 
plan  document  and  the  method  of  determining  the  cut.  The 
rotation  age,  i.e.,  the  age  of  technical,  economic,  financial, 
or  other  maturity,  whichever  may  be  chosen,  is  dependent  on 
all  the  conditions  of  site,  silviculture,  utilization,  and  economics, 
which  influence  the  increment  of  the  stands  and  the  value  of  the 
timber. 


CHAPTER  II 

IN  AMERICA 

SECTION  ONE 

EARLY  BEGINNINGS  * 

Working  plans  are  almost  coincident  with  the  beginnings  of 
American  forestry.  Before  the  control  of  the  national  forests 
passed  over  to  the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture in  1905,  the  then  Bureau  of  Forestry,  through  its  offer 
of  cooperation  with  private  owners,  prepared  many  working 
plans  for  timber  tracts  in  the  Eastern  and  Southern  States. 
Since  these  plans  were  for  very  irregular,  extensive  conditions 
and  were  generally  intended  for  execution  by  laymen  who  had 
little  or  no  cpnception  of  the  purposes  of  forest  management, 
it  was  inevitable  that  they  exceeded  the  confines  of  mere  forest 
organization  and  often  consisted  chiefly  of  elaborate  forest 
descriptions  and  estimates,  emphasizing  the  silvical  character- 
istics of  the  more  important  species,  of  logging  methods  and  rules 
to  prevent  waste.  Actual  calculation  of  the  cut  was  con- 
fined to  a  rather  crude  diameter-limit  method  which  emphasized 
the  possible  periods  of  return  for  an  equal  or  approximately 
equal  cut.  Little  or  no  attempt  was  made  to  distribute  the 
cut  according  to  the  needs  of  the  individual  stands:  the  regu- 
lation was  by  volume  alone. 

As  working  plans  these  were,  probably,  with  rare  exceptions, 
failures;    for  no  plan  can  hope  to  live  that  is  made  from  the 


*  See  "  Working  Plans:  Past  History,  Present  Situation,  and  Future  Develop- 
ment," by  Barrington  Moore,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Fsters.,  Vol.  X,  No.  3,  pp.  217-258, 
especially  pp.  220  to  224. 

226 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  227 

outside  without  an  adequate  understanding  of  the  silvicultural 
and  economic  conditions.  It  was  a  precocious  attempt  to  make 
a  plan  on  European  models  without  the  basis  of  exact  knowl- 
edge which  is   the   fruit  of  decades  of   European   experience. 

The  plans,  as  such,  were  valuable  chiefly  for  the  estimates, 
maps,  and  other  field  data  which  they  furnished  to  the  owner, 
and  for  the  volume,  growth,  and  other  silvical  data  which  they 
furnished  to  the  Bureau,  together  with  a  splendid  field  training 
for  the  men  concerned  in  the  work. 

It  is  doubtful  if  any  of  the  plans  were  ever  maintained;  for 
no  adequate  provisions  were  made  for  their  control  and  revision 
and,  though  drawn  up  for  decades  in  advance,  they  soon  lapsed 
into  desuetude. 

Some  were  published  as  bulletins  of  the  Bureau,  and  are 
now  chiefly  valuable  for  the  volume  and  growth  tables,  and 
other  silvical  data  which  they  contain,  and  as  landmarks  of  the 
progress  toward  an  American  forest  management. 


SECTION  TWO 

RECONNAISSANCE 


On  February  i,  1905,  the  Forest  Service  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture  took  over  the  charge  of  the  then  forest  reserves. 
The  tremendous  task  of  organizing  the  administrative  machinery 
over  an  area  of  over  100  milHon  acres  absorbed  all  the  energies 
of  the  forest  service,  and  although  the  need  of  working  plans 
was  repeatedly  recognized  by  those  in  authority  and  a  few 
sporadic  plans  were  actually  made,*    nothing  systematic  was 


*  For  the  details  of  this  development  see  article  "  The  New  Reconnaissance, 
Working  Plans  that  Work,"  in  Proceedings  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Vol.  IV.  No.  i. 
Reprinted  Yale  Publishing  Association,  1909.  See  also  "  W^orking  Plans:  Past 
History,  Present  Situation,  and  Future  Development,"  by  Barrington  Moore, 
Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Vol.  X,  No.  3,  pp.  217-258,  especially  pp.  224-232. 


228  THE    THEORY   AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

done  until  the  winter  of  1907-08,  when  for  the  first  time  rough 
estimates  of  the  timber  standing  on  the  various  national  forests 
were  compiled. 

The  section  of  reconnaissance  in  the  office  of  forest  manage- 
ment was  reorganized  and  its  activities  diverted  from  a  study 
of  the  distribution,  existing  volume,  utilization,  and  manage- 
ment of  the  more  important  commercial  species  (so  called  "  Com- 
mercial Tree  Studies  ")  to  the  far  more  pressing  task  of  sys- 
tematizing and  controlling  the  estimates,  allowed  annual  cut, 
marking  rules,  stumpage  rates,  and  sale  policy  of  the  national 
forests  which  then  aggregated  about  175  million  acres. 

The  compilation  of  estimates  from  the  various  national 
forests  was  so  glaringly  inadequate  that  steps  were  immedi- 
ately taken  to  secure  reliable  estimates  of  all  the  forests,  begin- 
ning with  those  where  the  cutting  was  heaviest  and  threatened 
to  exceed  the  proper  allowance.  By  the  placing  of  several 
parties  in  the  field  each  season  good  progress  has  been  made 
towards  securing  fairly  reliable  estimates  and  forest  descriptions 
and  usually  excellent  maps. 

Based  on  these  field  data,  insufficient  though  they  are,  sim- 
ple working  plans  have  been  prepared  in  accordance  with  stand- 
ard outlines.  The  outline  of  191 2  which  is  still  in  effect  is  as 
follows : 

I.  General  Description 

(General  data  which  relates  to  two  or  more  sections  of  the  plan,  or  which 
can  be  treated  more  logically  here  than  under  other  sections.     Under  most 
headings  the  discussion  will  be  a  summary  of  important  points  treated  in 
detail  in  other  sections  of  the  plan.) 
Creation.     Area,   past  and  present.     Totals  of  alienated   lands  by  classes. 

(Tabulated  form.) 
Physical  features.     (Concise.     Include  the  information  which  has  a  distinct 
bearing  upon  or  forms  the  basis  for  the  provisions  of  the  plan.) 
Climate.     (Data  not  of  direct  application  may  be  placed  in  the  Appendix.) 
Topography.     (For  use  in  the  division  of  the  forest  into  working  circles, 
as  well  as  its  bearing  upon  use,  development,  and  administration  of 
the  forest.) 
Geology.     (As  it  affects  soils,  etc.) 
Soils.     (In  such  form  that  statement   made   may  be  appl'ed  directly  in 

silvicultural  practice,  settlement,  policy,  etc.) 
Land  classification.     Forest,  agriculture,  grazing,  barren,  etc.     (Tabu- 
lated.    Brief  discussion,  if  necessary.) 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  229 

Transportation.  (Railroads,  water,  etc.,  only  as  it  affects  the  administra- 
tion or  the  development  of  the  forest.) 

Settlement.  Present  and  probable  future.  (As  it  affects  the  forest  and  the 
plan.) 

Industries.  Mining,  grazing,  ranching,  lumbering,  etc.  (Only  as  they  have 
a  bearing  on  the  plan.) 

II.  Silviculture 
Timber: 

Estimates  and  detailed  descriptions  of  timber.     Estimates  by  species, 
separately  by  divisions,  blocks,  and  other  natural  or  artificial  sub- 
divisions.    Quality  and  condition  of  timber,  age  classes  if  stand  is 
even-aged,  accessibility,  information  on  logging,  etc.,  as  necessary, 
cut-over  areas.     (Tabulation.) 
Forest  Types.     Composition,  occurrence,  distribution  of  age  classes,  and 
condition  of  timber.     (Concise  general  descriptions,  and  the  funda- 
mental  silvicultural   requirements   and   principles  which   form   the 
basis  for  the  choice  and  application  of  silvicultural  systems.) 
Species.     (Concise.     Treat,   from   the  standpoint  of  the  type  and 
the  stand  rather  than  the  individual  tree,  the  characteristics 
and  requirements  upon  which  will  be  based  conclusions  regard- 
ing the  species  to  be  favored  and  the  relation  in  the  management 
of  each  species  to  the  others  in  the  stand  or  type.) 
Climatic,  soil,  moisture,  and  light  requirements. 
Growth,  form,  volume,  etc.     (Tables  to  be  included  in  the  plan 
if  they  will  be  used  frequently,  otherwise  in  the  Appendix.) 
Reproduction.      Advance    reproduction    present.      Conditions 
necessary  to  secure  it. 
Value  of  wood.     (Properties.     Comparative  values.) 
Causes   of   injury.     Fire,   insects,   fungi,   mistletoe,   smeiter  fumes, 
weather,  animals,  etc.     (Control  under  protection.) 
Increment.     Yield   tables  or  other  data,  or  the  method  used  to  deter- 
mine increment.     Effect  of  thinnings  on  growth,  etc. 
Timber  operations. 
Markets. 

Consumption  and  demand,  local  and  general,  past,  present,  and 
future.     Relation  to  surrounding  forests  if  any.     Cut,  by  years, 
sales,  and  free  use.     (For  use  in  the  determination  of  working 
circle  boundaries  and  in  regulation.) 
Prices.     (To  aid  in  stumpage  appraisals.) 
Methods  and  utilization.     (Methods  in  relation  to  preservation  of  proper 
silvicultural  conditions,  also  as  a  basis  for  costs.     Reasonable  possi- 
bilities in  utilization.) 
Costs.     (As  a  basis  for  stumpage  appraisals.) 
Objects  of  Management.     Watershed  protection,  species  of  timber  and  classes 
of  material,  sustained  annual  or  periodic  yield,  etc.     (State  specifically 
in  order  of  importance  the  objects  which  materially  affect  the  provisions 
of  the  plan.) 
Silvicultural  Systems  and  their  application.     For  each  type.     (Concise  de- 
scriptions of  the  systems  adopted  and  provisions  for  their  specific  appli- 
cation.    Include  brush  disposal.) 
Regulation  of  yield: 

Rotation,  cutting  cycles,  etc.     (Rotation  of  maximum  volume  production. 

Cutting  cycles  as  short  as  practical  considerations  will  allow.) 
Division  of  the  forest  into  necessary  divisions  (working  circles),  areas 
within  which  sustained  yield,  annual  or  periodic,  is  now  or  will  ulti- 
mately be  desirable,  based  upon  markets,  transportation,  and  to- 
13 


230  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

pography.     (This  may  be  done  elsewhere  in  cases  where  such  action 

will  simplify  treatment.) 

Blocks  and  chances  only  when  they  are  actually  needed  to  assist  in 
regulation.  (Blocks — main  logging  units  or  groups  of  logging 
units.  Chances — single  logging  units  or  the  subdivision  of 
blocks  necessary  to  carry  out  the  management.) 

Annual  or  periodic  cut.  The  limitation  of  cut  including  sales  and 
free  use.  Accurately  for  ten  years,  and  approximately  for  the 
periods  of  the  rotation.  (Include  in  the  plan  only  the  essential 
features  of  the  method  used,  and  cover  necessary  details  in  the 
Appendix.  Blank  table  for  tabulation  of  limitation  and  amounts 
actually  cut.     Sales  and  free  use.) 

Sales.     (By  divisions,  if  advisable.) 

Policy.  Restriction  and  encouragement  and  location.  (The  plan  of 
cutting  and  specific  application  to  actual  conditions  of  the  preceding 
conclusions  and  of  the  service  policy  and  regulations.  Past  man- 
agement to  be  treated  only  as  it  will  help  in  an  understanding  of  that 
proposed.) 

Stumpage  appraisals.     Maximum  and  minimum  rates. 

Administration  and  other  features.  Special  force  needed.  Costs. 
(Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  expenditures  in  Section 
VII.) 
Free  Use.  (Principles  applying  specifically  the  general  free  use  policy,  espe- 
cially where  it  is  more  or  less  vague  and  general.  By  divisions,  if 
advisable.) 

Present  and  prospective  annual  demand  by  classes  of  users  and  of  forest 
products. 

Policy,  restriction,  or  encouragement  by  districts  and  classes  of  products. 

Administration.  Free  use  areas.  Blanket  or  year  long  permits.  Other 
measures  to  promote  economy.  Special  force  needed.  Costs. 
(Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  expenditures  in  Section 
VII.) 

Map  or  maps  showing  topography,  types,  classification  of  timber,  boundaries 
of  divisions,  blocks,  etc.,  free  use  areas,  cut-over  areas,  etc. 

Forestation: 

General  relation  to  ultimate  timber  management. 

Areas  requiring  forestation.     By  types.     (Brief  description.    Tabulated.) 

Methods  and  species.     (Concise.     Base  upon  results  of  past  work.     In 

addition  to  sowing,  planting,  etc.,  include  seed  collection,  poisoning 

rodents,  etc.) 

Detailed  plan.     (Five  years,  or  if  impracticable,  omit  and  provide  for 

annually.) 

Areas,  methods,  and  costs.     (Tabulated.) 

Administrative     features.     Special     force     needed.     (Regular    and 
special  work  such  as  seed  collecting,  etc.) 
Nursery. 

Ultimate  production,  species,  and  numbers. 
Methods.     (Essential  features.) 
Detailed  plan.     (Five  years.) 

Species,  numbers,  and  costs.     (Tabulated  form.) 
Administrative  features.     Special  force  needed. 
Map  showmg  areas  to  be  reforested,  classified  as  above,  etc. 

Investigations:  (Which  can  be  conducted  inexpensively  in  connection  with 
the  regular  administration  of  the  forest  and  which  should  result  in  prac- 
tical information  needed  in  the  administration.     Brief.) 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  231 

III.  Grazing 
luinge  Management: 

Types.     (Concise  descriptions  of  each.) 

Names  of  important  and  characteristic  forage  plants. 
Accurate  data  on  seasons  of  growth. 
Accurate  data  on  forage  value. 
Acreage.     With  forage.     Waste.     (Tabulated.) 
Carrying  capacity.     Present.     Possible.     Brief  descriptions.     By  allotments 

or  divisions.     (Tabulated.) 
Demand  and  other  local  conditions  in  the  live-stock  industry  which  affect 

grazing  on  the  forest.     Relation  to  silviculture. 
Allotments. 

Arrangement.     (Division  of  the  range  between  cattle  and  sheep,  grazing 
districts,  and  individual  allotments  to  be  shown  on  map.     Guiding 
principles,   or   necessary   comment    in   the   discussion.)     To   secure 
Best  division  between  cattle  and  sheep. 
Full  and  equal  utilization. 

Best  division  of  types  and  early  and  late  ranges. 
Best  division  of  watering  places. 
Proper  silvicultural  and  watershed  protection. 
Number  and  kind  of  stock  grazed.     By  allotments  or  divisions.     Num- 
ber of  permits  by  classes. 
Seasons.     (To  secure  full  utilization  of  the  forage  without  seriously  in- 
terfering  with   the    natural    requirements   of    plant    growth,  each 
portion  of  the  range  should  occasionally,  every  few  years,  be  grazed 
only  during  the  last  half  of  the  natural  growing  period  in  order  to 
keep  the  plant  constitutions  strong  and  allow  some  actual  reseeding. 
So  far  as  is  consistent  with  this  principle,  the  green  tender  feed  should 
be  available  for  the  stock  during  as  much  of  the  season  as  is  prac- 
ticable.    This  is  essential,  especially  for  sheep.     This  plan  may  be 
considered  a  variation  of  seasons  or  a  division  of  allotment.) 
Fees.     By  classes  of  stock  and  season.     (Tabulated.) 
Methods  of  handling  stock. 

Cattle.     (Salting  and  necessary  riding  by  permittees  to  secure  equal 
utilization  of  range  and   prevent  congregation  along  streams  and 
water  holes,  with  resulting  destruction  of  plant  growth  and  poor 
development  of  stock.) 
Sheep. 

Size  of  bands. 

Herding.     (Develop  open  quiet  herding  and  avoid  driving  back  to 

camp.) 
Salting.     (Encourage  abundant  use  of  salt,  it  means  easier  herding, 
less  danger  from  poison  and  disease,  and  less  damage  to  the 
range.) 
Other  stock.     (When  special  provisions  are  required.) 
Eange  improvements: 

(Permanent  improvements  in  the  improvement  section.) 
Reseeding  either   with   cultivated   plants  or  by  restricting  grazing  for 
natural  reseeding,  posting  poisonous  areas,  changes  or  improvement 
in  stock  driveways,  extermination  of  predatory  animals,  prevention 
_  of  erosion  by  proper  handling  of  stock. 
Policy  and  administration. 

General  principles  of  policy  not  already  covered.     Protective  and 

ma.ximum  limits,  new  owners,  advisory  boards,  etc. 
Administration.     Extermination    of    predatory    animals,    counting 
stock,  or  other  special  phases  of  the  work.     Special  force  re- 
quired.    Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest 
expenditures  in  Section  VII.) 


232  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING  PLANS 

Investigations: 

Proper  seasons,  carrying  capacity,  poisonous  plants,  artificial  reseeding, 
demonstration   tests   of   proper   utilization,    effect   of   grazing   upon 
reproduction,  and  most  efficient  systems  of  grazing  management  to 
eliminate  damage.     Herbarium  with  necessary  notes. 
Map  or  maps,  showing  types,  water,  fences,  corrals,  topography,  grazing  dis- 
tricts, allotments,  reserved  areas,  driveways,  or  other  factors  or  features 
whichlnfluence  or  illustrate  the  handling  of  the  stock. 

IV.  Lands 
Settlement: 

Soils.     (Classification  with  brief  description  and  a  statement  of  compara- 
tive agricultural  and  forest  value  of  each  class  based  upon   land 
values,  forest  expectation  values,  etc.) 
Demand  for  agricultural  lands.     Past,  present,  and  future. 
Policy.     (In  i,  2,  and  3  order,  application  of  policy  based  upon  the  pre- 
ceding classification,  results  of  past  policy,  service  policy,  and  any 
other  principles  as  a  guide  to  examiners.     Practicability  of  detailed 
classification  of  certain  districts  in  advance  of  application.) 
Map,  showing  soil  classification,  if  data  is  available. 
Uses  and  Easements: 
Resources. 

Demand.     Past,  present,  and  future. 

Policy.     (Special  features  which  are  important  by  kinds  of  uses  or  ease- 
ments.    Include  charges  compared  with  value  to  users.) 

Water-power: 

Resources.     Streams,  sites,  power.     Cost  and  market  data  and  stream 

measurements.     (Tabulate.) 
Demand.     Past,  present,  and  future. 
Policy.     (Special  features.) 
Administrative  sites: 

Sites,  rights  of  way,  etc.,  withdrawn,  or  still  needed  and  to  be  withdrawn. 
Include  comprehensive  plan  of  rights  of  way  needed  for  future  sales 
and  other  uses  as  well  as  sites  and  rights  of  way  required  in  admin- 
istration.    (Tabulate  or  show  on  map.) 
Administration: 

Special  force  needed.     Other  administrative  questions. 

Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  forest  expenditures  in 
Section  VII.) 
Investigation: 

Map  or  maps  showing  status,  location  of  uses,  easements,  water-power  pro- 
jects, administrative  sites,  etc. 

V.  Protection 

Fire:     (By  divisions  or  geographical  subdivisions,  if  advisable.) 

Liability.     Statement  of  value  of  destructible  resources  by  classes,  and 

for  districts  or  regions. 

Timber,  expectation  value  of  young  growth,  forage. 

Arbitrary  value  per  acre  of  watershed  protection.     (Possible  money 

damage.     Tabulate.) 
Hazard  or  risk.     Statement  by  types  or  regions  based  upon  character  of 

stand,  danger  of  fires  starting,  and  difficulty  and  cost  of  suppression. 

(Should  be  based  in  part  upon  a  study  of  past  experience.) 
Protection  required.     (Principles  which  sum  up  on  the  basis  of  liability 

and  hazard  the  relative  amount  of  protection  needed  in  specified 

parts  of  the  forest.) 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  233 

Control. 

Improvements  available.     By  districts.     (Brief  description,  tabulate  if 
map  is  not  sufficient.) 
Communication.     Telephone,  etc. 

Transportation.     Railroads,  roads,  trails,  pack  trains,  etc. 
Fire  lines. 
Look-out  stations. 
Supplies  and  tools.     (Distribution  or  how  they  are  to  be  purchased,  etc. 

Tabulate.) 
Cooperation. 

Adjoining  forests,  between  ranger  districts,  State  associations,  cor- 
porations, individuals,  etc. 
Organization  and  administration. 

For  look-out  stations  and  patrol.     Numbers  of  men  and  duties  by 

districts.     (Tabulate  so  far  as  possible.) 
For  fighting  fires.     (Tabulate  if  possible.) 
Regular  and  temporary  force. 
Cooperation,  labor,  including  users. 
Outside  labor. 
Costs.     (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest  expenditures 
in  Section  VII.) 
Specific  and  detailed  instructions  to  rangers  based  on  the  above,  and 
resulting  in  its  direct  application  should  be  issued  to  all  forest  offi- 
cers engaged  in  fire  protection. 
Map  showing  types,  topography,  improvements,  and  as  much  of  above 
information   as   is   possible   and   advisable.     Copies  to  accompany 
letters  of  instruction. 

Insects: 

Extent  of  infestation  and  damage. 

Control,  administrative  measures,  methods.  Special  force  needed. 
Costs.  (Summary  for  use  in  obtaining  total  of  forest  expenditures 
in  Section  VII.) 

Other  damages: 

E.Ktcnt.     Amount  of  damages. 

Control,  administrative  measures.     (As  under  Insects.) 

Game: 

Policy  and  administrative  measures. 

Investigations: 

VI.  Improvements 

Improvements.     Comprehensive  plan  of  the  improvements  needed.     Loca- 
tion, brief  description,  estimated  costs,  indicate  those  which  should  be 
undertaken  within  the  next  five  years.     (Tabulated  form.) 
Roads,   trails,   telephone   lines;    fire   lines,   administrative   fences,   stock 
fences,   including   the   fencing   of   poisonous   areas   and   bog   holes, 
bridges,    corrals,    dwellings,    other    buildings,    water    development, 
steam  improvement,  dams  to  prevent  erosion,  other  projects. 
Maintenance,  as  above. 
Policy  and  administration. 

Improvement  policy  of  the  forest.     (Concisely  by  lines  of  work  such  as 

silviculture,  grazing,  protection,  general  administration,  etc.) 
Administrative   provisions.     Special   force   needed.     Costs,   exclusive  of 
the  costs  of  individual  projects. 
Map  showing  all  improvements  constructed  and  planned,  with  a  sufficient 
amount  of  other  data  to  make  intelligible. 


234  THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS 

VII.  Administration 

Administrative  districts.     Number,  area,  and  relative  importance  or  amount 

of  work.     (Tabulate.) 
Force.     Office  and  field  and  assignjnent.     Salaries. 

Also  a  brief  forecast  of  future  requirements.     (Tabulate.) 

Permanent,  statutory. 

Semi-permanent  and  temporary. 
General  administrative  policy  of  forest.     (General  relation  of  important  lines 

of  work.     Include  also  points  not  already  covered;    fully  and  briefly  in 

I,  2,  and  3  order.) 
Receipts  and  expenditures  and  results.     By  lines  of  work  for  fiscal  years,  past 

and  estimated  future. 

Administrative  provisions  for  increasing  receipts  or  reducing  expendi- 
tures. 
Map,  boundaries  of  administrative,  or  other  districts. 

Appendix 

Material  which  should  be  preserved  in  connection  with  the  plan,  but 
which  will  be  used  infrequently  in  actual  forest  administration. 
List  of  species. 
Details  of  methods  used  in  the  collection  of  data,  costs,  and  areas  covered. 

(Reconnaissance.) 
Tables,  growth,  volume,  etc.,  when  it  is  reasonably  certain  that  they  will  be 

used  infrequently. 
Details  of  method  for  regulating  yield. 
Detailed  silvical  discussions  upon  which  conclusions  and  principles  outlined 

in  the  plan  are  based,  if  preservation  seems  necessary  or  advisable. 
General  notes  upon  which  the  conclusions  in  the  plan  were  based. 
Inventory  of  existing  improvements,  if  desired.      (Tabulate.) 

The  first  attempts  to  determine  tlie  allowed  annual  cut  for 
each  national  forest,  necessarily  in  advance,  often,  of  any  regu- 
lar working  plan,  were  very  crude.  Nevertheless,  though  based 
on  insufficient  data,  the  attempt  recognized  the  fundamental 
principle  of  a  sustained  yield. 

For  each  national  forest  the  annual  cut  has  been  fixed  since 
1908.  At  first  this  was  taken,  roughly,  as  equal  to  the  current 
annual  increment,  a  crude  calculation  based  on  often  faulty 
estimates  and  insufficient  growth  data,  but  giving  at  least  a 
working  basis. 

The  allowed  cut  so  calculated  was  not  distributed  on  the 
ground,  since  this  would  have  been  a  useless  play,  but  instead 
a  definite  sale  policy  was  drawn  up  for  each  forest  by  dividing 
the  forest  into  areas  where  ordinary  sales,  i.e.,  of  large  size, 
are  desirable,  areas  where  small  sales  (for  local  industries)  only 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  235 

are  desirable,  areas  for  free  use  of  inhabitants  only,  and  areas 
reserved  as  protection  forest. 

This  rough  division  of  area,  indicated  on  forest  and  district 
maps,  was  further  supplemented  by  general  notes  on  areas 
requiring  cutting  because  of  overmaturity,  insect  damage,  dis- 
ease, fire,  and  the  like. 

Minimum  stumpage  rates  for  each  species  and  class  of 
material  were  also  fixed  for  each  national  forest  so  as  to  prevent 
the  wide  variation  in  prices  obtained. 

It  had  been  the  custom  to  draw  up  special  marking  rules 
for  each  timber  sale  of  larger  size.  To  avoid  constant  repeti- 
tion these  began  to  be  combined  into  a  set  of  marking  rules  for 
all  the  various  forest  types  contained  within  a  certain  national 
forest  and  these  rules  made  standard  for  all  sales  within  that 
forest. 

The  rules  by  forests  were  then  combined  into  general  mark- 
ing rules  for  the  various  silvical  regions  of  the  West.  This 
work  was  completed  in  November,  1908,  and  the  mimeographed 
marking  rules  as  sent  out  to  all  forest  officers  represented  the 
best  information  then  available  on  the  very  important  question 
of  marking  trees  for  cutting  in  timber  sales.  They  have  been 
revised  from  time  to  time  and  have  been  aptly  supplemented 
by  actual  examples  of  projerly  marked  areas  as  an  ocular  dem- 
onstration of  how  to  do  it. 

Although  the  section  of  reconnaissance  had  brought  to- 
gether all  the  data  stored  in  the  files  of  the  service  and  built 
thereon  the  first  crude  beginnings  of  a  systematic  forest  organ- 
ization, further  progress  would  have  been  impossible  except  for 
the  active  cooperation  of  the  men  in  th'^  field.  Realizing  the 
inadequacy  of  the  existing  estimates  and  tl.e  time  which  must 
elapse  before  each  forest  could  be  covered  by  detailed  recon- 
naissance, a  circular  letter  was  sent  to  all  the  supervisors  in 
the  spring  of  1908  requesting  them  to  make  every  effort  to 
correct  and  amend  existing  estimates  during  the  approaching 
field  season  and  to  segregate  the  estimates  by  blocks  (i.e.,  by 
watersheds),  by  species,  and  by  classes  of  material. 


236         THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

A  similar  letter  was  sent  asking  the  supervisors  to  draw  up, 
each  for  his  forest,  a  plan  of  sale  policy,  indicating  those  areas 
on  which  cutting  should  be  restricted  or  encouraged  according 
to  economic  and  silvicultural  conditions,  etc. 

The  first  crude  regulations  of  the  cut,  sale  policy,  and 
minimum  stumpage  rates  were  also  sent  to  each  of  the  six 
inspection  districts  and  the  chief  inspector  requested  to  revise 
and  amplify  them  according  to  his  local  information. 

In  the  Southwestern  district  (No.  3),  Acting  Chief  Inspector 
Woolsey  availed  himself  of  this  splendid  opportunity  to  draw 
up  a  complete,  far-sighted  limitation  of  cut  and  sale  policy  for 
each  forest  and  for  the  district  and  also  minimum  stumpage 
rates  by  forests,  species,  and  classes  of  material.  His  sale 
policy  was  by  far  the  most  complete  of  any  prepared,  the  more 
so  as  he  proceeded  to  determine  the  allowed  annual  cut  for  each 
forest,  separately  for  saw  timber  and  cord- wood,  by  Von  Man- 
tel's method  (see  method  No.  2).  Crude  as  this  method  is, 
it  was  a  marked  step  in  advance  in  the  regulation  of  cut  on  the 
national  forests. 

When  the  six  Western  administrative  districts  were  created 
in  December,  1908,  the  ofifice  of  management,  and  with  it  the 
section  of  reconnaissance,  ceased  to  exist.  So  enormous  had 
been  the  undertaken  task  of  systematizing  and  controlling  the 
estimates,  allowed  annual  cut,  marking  rules,  stumpage  rates, 
and  sale  policy  that  only  the  foundations  of  a  correct  forest 
organization  were  turned  over  to  the  districts  whereon  to  build. 

The  office  of  silviculture  in  each  of  the  districts  took  over 
the  task  and  the  manual  of  procedure  in  the  district  offices 
provided  for  annual  revisions  of  the  estimates,  sale  policy, 
allowed  annual  cut,  minimum  (later  standard)  stumpage  rates, 
and  marking  rules,  to  be  submitted  by  the  supervisors,  combined 
by  the  district  forester  and  in  the  case  of  the  allowed  annual 
cut,  forwarded  by  him  to  Washington  for  review  by  the  forester 
and  approval  by  the  secretary.  The  limitation  of  annual  cut 
as  fixed  by  the  secretary — based,  of  course,  on  reasons  of  sale 
policy — could  not  be  exceeded  without  his  consent.     However, 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING    PLANS  237 

this  was  seldom  required;  for  inaccessibility  and  competition 
with  private  timber  restricted  the  bare  possibility  of  national 
forest  sales  to  a  point  far  below  what  the  forests  would  support. 
Thus  in  191 1  the  annual  cut  which  the  national  forests  were 
estimated  to  be  able  to  sustain  permanently,  totalled  3,274,- 
000,000  board  feet.  The  actual  cut  under  both  timber  sales 
and  free  use  permits  was,  in  1916,  665,000  M.,  but  Uttle  over 
20  per  cent  of  the  actual  yield  of  the  forests. 


SECTION  THREE 

PRESENT  PROCEDURE  * 


The  decentralization  of  working  plans  control  resulted  in  a 
most  unequal  progress  in  forest  organization.  Starting  with  the 
same  foundations  in  December,  1908,  there  were,  in  matters  of 
working  plans,  much  confusion  and  wasted  effort.  This  un- 
fortunate condition  was  relieved  by  the  issuance,  late  in  1911, 
of  the  forest  plans  section  of  "  The  National  Forest  Manual  "  f 
which  restores  system  and  purpose  to  the  work  of  forest  organ- 
ization and  is  a  big  step  in  advance  towards  unif}'ing  the  work- 
ing-plan procedure  of  the  various  districts. | 

This  has  not  been  superseded  by  the  National  Forest 
Manual  of  November,  1914.  "  When  the  National  Forest  Man- 
ual of  1 9 14  was  issued  it  was  decided  to  omit  from  it  discussions 
of  technical  practice.     It  was  felt  that   these  subjects  could 

*  See  "  Working  Plans:  Past  History,  Present  Situation,  and  Future  Develop- 
ment "  by  Barrington  Moore,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Foresters,  Vol.  X,  No.  3,  pp.  217- 
258,  especially  pp.  233  to  251. 

t  "  The  National  Forest  Manual:  Instructions  to  forest  officers,  relating 
to  forest  plans,  forest  e.xtension,  forest  investigations,  libraries,  cooperation, 
and  dendrology.  Issued  by  the  Secretary  of  ,*\griculture  to  take  effect  Novem- 
ber I,  1911."     Washington,  Government  Printing  OOice,  1911. 

J  This  has  been  aided  by  the  issuance  of  "  Instructions  for  Reconnaissance 
Surveys  and  Maps,"  June  9,  1913,  amended  and  incorporated  in  the  "  Topo- 
graphic Survey  Manual "  of  1916,  and  of  "  Instructions  for  Intensive  Timber  Recon- 
naissance," .\pril  3,  1914,  amended  and  reissued  as  the  "  Timber  Survey  Manual  " 
on  June  3,  1916. 


238  THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

best  be  treated  in  separate  manuals.  This  accounts  for  so  little 
space  being  given  to  the  subject  of  working  plans  in  that 
Manual.  The  reference  to  the  '  Working  Plan  Manual '  was 
to  a  proposed  manual  on  working  plans  more  complete  than 
any  previously  attempted.  It  has  not  been  practicable  to  under- 
take the  preparation  of  this  manual  up  to  the  present  time,  so 
that  the  latest  word  on  instructions  and  procedures  is  really 
that  contained  in  the  manual  of  191 1."  * 

There  follows,  in  somewhat  condensed  form,  the  Forest 
plans  portion  of  The  National  Forest  Manual  of  191 1: 

FOREST  PLANS 

The  object  of  the  forest  plan  is  to  systematize  and  control 
the  management  of  each  forest  upon  a  definite  basis  which  shall 
represent  the  cumulative  experience  and  information  which  the 
service  has  acquired. 

Three  different  kinds  of  plans,  differing  only  in  scope  and 
intensity,  will  be  used  in  developing  the  management  of  the 
respective  forests,  namely,  preliminary  plans,  working  plans, 
and  annual  plans. 

A  preliminary  plan  is  simply  a  systematic  statement,  pre- 
pared from  the  best  information  now  available,  of  the  resources 
of  the  forest,  the  conditions  governing  their  use  and  develop- 
ment, and  the  administrative  measures  to  be  followed  in  their 
management. 

A  working  plan  is  a  similar  statement,  more  complete  and 
final  in  character,  based  upon  thorough  investigation  and  accu- 
rate data,  and  including  a  definite  scheme  of  management 
devised  for  a  period  of  years. 

The  annual  plan  is  covered  by  the  various  periodic  estimates 
and  reports.  It  constitutes  a  periodic  revision  of  the  prelim- 
inary or  working  plan,  together  with  the  specific  application  of 
these  plans  to  the  business  of  the  forest  for  the  ensuing  year. 

*  The  author  is  indebted  for  this  statement  to  Mr.  R.  Y.  Stuart  of  the  Forest 
Servicft,  in  a  personal  letter  dated  April  17,  1916. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  239 

The  subjects  to  be  covered  in  all  forest  plans  are: 

1.  General  administration. 

2.  Silvicultural  management. 

3.  Grazing  management. 

4.  Permanent  improvements. 

5.  Forest  protection. 

6.  Uses  of  forest  land. 

Each  forest  plan  will  provide  for  the  management  of  a  whole 
administrative  unit  or  forest.  No  plan  should  include  more 
than  one  forest.  Where  conditions  in  adjacent  forests  are  sim- 
ilar, or  the  forests  supply  the  same  markets,  these  facts  will  be 
considered,  particularly  in  the  location  of  cutting  area  and  limi- 
tation of  the  annual  cut.  Such  considerations  will  also  be 
necessary  in  grazing  and  protection. 

Where  necessary,  because  of  important  market  or  topo- 
graphic considerations,  the  forest  may  be  divided  into  areas, 
each  of  which  will  be  managed  with  the  idea  of  sustained  yield. 
If  necessary  to  assist  in  regulating  the  cut,  a  subdivision  of  the 
above  areas  may  be  made;  this  should  be  on  the  basis  of  log- 
ging units  or  groups  of  logging  units,  the  boundaries  depending 
entirely  upon  topography.  Unnecessary  divisions  will  not  be 
made,  since  they  complicate  administration.  Where  possible 
the  hues  of  administrative  subdivisions  and  those  for  the  tech- 
nical management  of  the  forest  will  be  coordinated. 

Final  responsibility  in  the  preparation  of  all  forest  plans 
rests  with  the  supervisor.  He  should,  in  submitting  the  plan 
for  approval,  transmit  any  recommendations  of  the  officer  in 
direct  charge  of  its  preparation  which  differ  materially  from  the 
plan  as  submitted. 

Since  the  completion  of  any  plan  is  but  the  beginning  of 
systematic  management,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  improve 
plans  which  have  been  prepared  and  to  obtain  the  additional 
data  needed  for  more  efficient  administration. 


240  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

PRELIMINARY  PLANS 

A  preliminary  plan  should  be  prepared  as  soon  as  practicable 
on  each  forest  from  the  data  now  available.  The  compilation 
of  such  data  in  the  form  of  a  definite  plan  of  management  will 
systematize  and  strengthen  the  administration  of  the  forest  and 
furnish  a  basis  for  further  extension  and  improvement.  The 
following  points  should  be  covered: 

Under  ^'General  Administration  "  should  be  given: 

1.  The  forest  force,  based  upon  the  men  required  to  transact 
economically  the  busmess  of  the  forest  and  furnish  adequate 
protection  during  the  fire  season. 

2.  Division  of  the  forest  into  administrative  and  patrol 
districts  to  be  shown  on  a  map. 

3.  A  record  by  classes  of  past  receipts  and  expenditures  and 
an  estimate  of  future  receipts  and  expenditures. 

Under  "  SilvicuUural  management  "  should  be  given: 

1.  Divisions  and  subdivisions,  if  any,  with  reasons. 

2.  Approximate  estimates  of  timber  by  convenient,  tech- 
nical, administrative,  or  legal  subdivisions. 

3.  The  silvicultural  systems  which  should  be  used,  by  types, 
and  by  divisions  if  modification  of  the  system  on  different  divi- 
sions is  necessary.  Prmciples  to  govern  marking  drawn  from 
the  best  silvical  data  available.  The  object  of  management 
for  the  forest,  as  far  as  available  information  makes  it  possible, 
or  for  divisions,  classes  of  material  to  be  produced,  species 
to  be  favored,  and  rotation  desirable. 

4.  A  rough  classification  of  the  timber  on  the  forest,  or  parts 
of  the  forest,  in  accordance  with  its  age  and  condition,  showing 
the  bodies  of  mature  timber,  of  thrifty  timber  not  yet  in  need  of 
cutting,  and  of  young  growth;  together  with  a  plan  of  cutting, 
showing  the  order  in  which  the  various  areas  should  be 
logged.  Areas  of  protection  forest  where  no  cutting  is  recom- 
mended should  be  indicated.  The  approximate  periods  in 
which  immature  stands  will  reach  merchantable  size  should  be 
shown. 


THE    THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  241 

5.  Recommended  limitations  on  the  annual  cut  *  for  the 
ensuing  four  or  five  years. 

6.  Data  on  methods  of  logging,  accessibility  of  merchantable 
bodies  of  timber,  costs  of  logging  and  manufacture,  markets  and 
market  conditions,  demand,  prices,  etc. 

7.  The  policy  for  the  whole  forest,  or  divisions  if  advisable, 
which  should  be  followed  as  to  sales,  reservations  for  local 
industries,  and  free  use,  together  with  the  opportunities  for 
desirable  sales. 

8.  Tentative  stumpage  rates  for  the  entire  forest,  or  divi- 
sions. 

9.  Improvements  needed  to  facilitate  the  sale  or  protection 
of  timber.  (To  be  incorporated  in  the  permanent  improvement 
plan.) 

10.  The  approximate  areas  on  which  artificial  reforestation 
will  be  necessary  in  whole  or  in  part,  together  with  the  species, 
to  be  used,  and,  broadly,  the  plan  to  be  followed  during  the 
ensuing  four  or  five  years,  plans  for  nurseries,  outline  of  desir- 
able experiments,  etc. 

11.  The  order  in  which  the  various  parts  of  the  forest  should 
be  covered  by  complete  reconnaissance, f  desirable  silvical 
studies  leading  toward  better  management,  etc. 

This  part  of  the  plan  should  be  accompanied  by  a  map 
showing  topography  in  as  much  detail  as  data  available  will 
allow,  roads,  trails,  forest  t>"pes,  age  classes,  if  necessary,  nur- 
sery sites,  and  areas  proposed  for  artificial  regeneration.  Much 
of  the  other  data  called  for  may  be  shown  either  on  the  map  or 
in  concise  tabulation  with  explanatory  notes. 

Under  "  Grazing  "  the  essential  point  is  to  compile  all  avail- 
able information  on  the  range  conditions  in  the  forest  as  a  basis 
for  systematic  range  protection,  development,  and  improve- 
ment.    The  following  outline  is  intended  only  as  a  guide: 

I.  Classification  of  grazing  lands  and  estimates  of  carrying 
capacity,  including: 

*  I.e.,  determination  of  the  cut. 
t  I.e.,  forest  surveys. 


242  THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS 

(i)  Determination  of  characteristic  ecological  types  or 
groups  of  forage  plants,  each  of  which  includes  certain  combina- 
tions of  grasses,  weeds,  and  browse.  The  t>p)es  should  be 
mapped  on  a  base  map  of  the  forest.  Groups  containing  poison- 
ous plants  may  demand  particular  attention. 

(2)  Concise  descriptions  of  each  group  or  type  including 
notes  on  individual  species,  the  seasons  when  the  plants  may 
be  used,  the  relative  grazing  value  of  the  types,  and  the  class 
of  stock  for  which  they  are  best  suited. 

,(3)  A  record  in  tabulated  form  of  the  kind  and  amount 
of  stock  at  present  grazed  on  the  land,  with  an  estimate  of  its 
present  grazing  capacity,  and  if  overgrazed  or  poorly  stocked 
with  forage  plants  the  capacity  to  which  it  may  be  brought  by 
proper  treatment. 

2.  Range  improvements :  Map  record  of  present  and  needed 
watering  facilities,  including  wells,  streams,  springs,  natural 
and  artificial  ponds  and  tanks,  drift  fences,  and  other  improve- 
ments necessary  for  the  best  use  of  the  range.  (To  be  incor- 
porated in  the  permanent  improvement  plan.) 

3.  The  plan  of  management  should  include,  with  necessary 
maps,  notes,  and  explanatory  data,  provision  for: 

(i)  The  control  and  eradication  of  poisonous  plants. 

(2)  Improvement  of  overgrazed  or  poorly  stocked  areas, 
including  reseeding,  the  use  of  a  rotation  scheme  of  excluding 
stock  from  areas  for  a  part  of  the  year  to  allow  seeding  of  native 
plants,  etc. 

(3)  Fuller  use  of  the  range  by  the  class  of  stock  for  which 
it  is  best  suited,  including  areas  not  now  used. 

(4)  Exclusion  or  reduction  of  stock  or  the  change  of  grazing 
seasons  when  necessary  for  silvical  reasons  or  the  protection  of 
watersheds  for  irrigation  or  municipal  water-supply.  Reduc- 
tion to  prevent  overgrazing,  or  erosion  caused  by  grazing. 

(5)  The  better  handling  of  stock,  including  salting,  bedding, 
the  prevention  of  concentration  to  the  injury  of  the  range, 
improved  herding  methods,  etc. 

\     (6)  Improvement  in  range  districts,  range  allotments,  etc. 


THE   THEORY  AND   PRACTICE    OF   WORKING   PLANS  243 

(7)  The  extermination  of  predatory  animals,  based  upon  the 
kind  and  amount  of  damage  done. 

(8)  The  extermination  of  prairie  dogs,  based  upon  the  area 
occupied  and  the  damage  done. 

A  systematic  plan  for  the  "  Permanent  Improvements  "  on  the 
forest  should  be  steadily  developed,  extended,  and  improved. 

The  improvement  plan  will  take  the  form  of  a  map,  and  such 
additional  notes  as  may  be  necessary  for  its  proper  understand- 
ing. Rough  estimates  of  cost  should  be  included  wherever 
obtainable.  The  following  kinds  of  work  will  be  considered: 
Roads,  trails,  bridges,  telephone  lines,  signal  systems,  perma- 
nent and  temporary  headquarters,  pastures,  look-out  towers, 
fire  lines,  tool  boxes,  improvements  necessary  for  range  develop- 
ment or  making  timber  accessible,  and  areas  in  which  the 
blazing  and  posting  of  trails  is  urgent. 

Under  ''  Forest  protection  "  provision  will  be  made  for  pro- 
tection against  fire  and  insects,  and  the  protection  of  nurseries 
and  plantations  against  rodents. 

A  plan  for  fire  protection,  as  complete  as  is  now  practicable, 
should  be  formulated  and  put  into  effect  on  each  forest. 

The  fire  plan  will  consist  of  a  map  showing  detailed  topog- 
raphy, forest  types,  all  permanent  improvements  which  will  be 
of  any  value  in  fire  protection,  look-out  points,  lines  of  fire 
patrol,  camping  sites,  places  where  assistance  in  fighting  fire 
may  be  obtained,  areas  of  particular  menace  and  areas  in 
particular  need  of  protection,  and  detailed  directions  to  rangers 
concerning  fire  patrol,  and  cooperation  with  other  districts 
and  forests. 

Under  "  Uses  of  Forest  Lands  "  data  should  be  collected 
showing: 

1.  Sale  prices  of  agricultural  lands  within  or  near  the  forest, 
including  stump  lands,  unimproved  non-timbered  lands,  and 
improved  ranches. 

2.  Cost  of  clearing  and  stumping  timbered  lands. 

3.  Comparative  value  of  timbered  land  for  agricultural  and 
forest  purposes. 


244  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

The  location  of  all  uses  which  have  been  granted  should  be 
recorded  on  a  base  map  of  the  forest.  Any  information  secured 
as  to  tracts  desirable  for  particular  uses  should  be  similarly 
recorded,  especially  reservoir  and  dam  sites,  as  part  of  the 
inventory  of  the  resources  of  the  forest. 

The  water-power  possibihties  of  the  forest,  including 
stream  measurements  and  the  collection  of  cost  and  market 
data. 

All  administrative  sites  should  be  shown  on  the  improve- 
ment map  of  the  forest.  Sufficient  additional  data  will  be 
recorded  to  show  in  concrete  form  the  system  of  administra- 
tive sites  devised  for  the  forest,  including  patrol  and  look-out 
stations,  nurseries,  and  sites  required  for  logging  facilities,  and 
other  uses  in  connection  with  the  sale  of  timber. 

WORKING  PLANS 

A  working  plan  is  simply  an  extension  and  development  of 
the  preliminary  plan,  based  upon  more  exact  data.  Such  a 
plan  should  ultimately  be  prepared  for  every  forest  as  the  need 
for  a  more  systematic  basis  of  management  becomes  urgent. 
Reconnaissance  work  should,  except  in  unusual  cases,  result 
in  working  plans. 

Working  plans  will  be  prepared  first  on  forest  where  the 
demand  for  timber  is  great  as  compared  with  the  supply,  and 
where  large  quantities  of  timber  are  evidently  mature  and  it  is 
reasonably  certain  that  sales  can  be  made  if  the  proper  data 
are  secured.  It  may  be  advisable  to  prepare  special  working 
plans  for  forests  on  which  large  areas  are  in  need  of  reforesta- 
tion. Special  grazing  working  plans  may  be  prepared  for  forests 
where  the  use  of  forage  resources  is  of  importance.  Special 
problems  in  any  other  phase  of  service  work  demanding  careful 
study  may  require  the  preparation  of  working  plans.  Where 
conditions  on  a  forest  differ  widely,  it  may  be  advisable  to  cover 
only  the  part  of  a  forest  to  which  the  special  administrative 
urgency  applies. 

Each  working  plan  will  outline  the  general  management  of 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING  PLANS  245 

the  forest  for  a  long  period,  usually  a  rotation  in  the  recommen- 
dations on  timber  cuttings,  and  the  management  in  detail  for 
some  such  period  as  ten  or  fifteen  years. 

The  amount  of  detail  in  the  working  plan  will  depend  upon 
the  value  of  the  forest  products  concerned,  the  need  for  inten- 
sive methods,  and  the  certainty  or  possibility  of  large  returns 
within  the  probable  life  of  the  plan.  On  forests  or  parts  of 
forests  where  the  demand  for  timber  equals  or  exceeds  the 
amount  which  can  be  cut  with  safety,  the  plan  for  silvi- 
cultural  management  must  be  in  much  greater  detail  than 
where  the  demand  is  comparatively  small.  The  requirements 
of  detail  in  the  different  parts  of  the  plan  and  in  different  work- 
ing units  must  be  adjusted  to  the  administrative  needs  of  the 
forest  in  all  lines  of  work. 

When  it  has  been  decided  to  make  a  working  plan,  its 
essential  features  and  the  field-work  necessary  should  be  out- 
lined at  a  conference  between  the  officer  who  will  have  charge 
of  the  field-work,  the  supervisor  of  the  forest,  the  assistant 
district  foresters  concerned,  and  the  district  forester  at  his  dis- 
cretion. It  is  particularly  necessary  that  the  general  system 
or  systems  of  management  be  determined,  and  the  methods 
for  determining  the  yield  of  each  unit  be  decided  upon.  Plans 
may  then  be  made  to  secure  the  exact  data  needed  and  un- 
necessary work  eliminated.  The  preliminary  plan  for  the  forest 
and  working  plans  already  prepared  will  form  the  basis  for  this 
discussion. 

Field  data  will  in  general  be  obtained  by  special  parties, 
which  as  far  as  possible  should  consist  of  experienced  men.  As 
far  as  possible,  the  data  for  all  parts  of  the  plan  will  be  col- 
lected at  the  same  time,  if  necessary  by  specialists  temporarily 
assigned  to  the  party.  The  data  for  planting  or  grazing  fea- 
tures may  be  collected  independently  when  the  need  justifies 
it.  The  work  will  be  done  under  the  direction  of  the  super- 
visor. 

As  far  as  possible  all  data  in  the  working-plan  report  will  be 
tabulated  with   brief   notes   of   necessary   explanation.     While 


246  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS 

working  plans  must  be  complete,  every  possible  effort  will  be 
made  to  eliminate  unnecessary  discussion  and  to  put  them  in 
concise  form.  All  detailed  data  relating  to  climate,  geology, 
soil,  growth  studies,  silvical  notes,  etc.,  should  be  placed  in  the 
appendix  of  the  working  plan,  and  everything  in  the  plan 
subordinated  to  the  actual  scheme  of  management  for  the 
forest. 

Working  plans  will  be  approved  by  the  forester. 

The  general  ground  to  be  covered  by  working  plans  is  as 
follows : 

Under  "  General  Administration  "  the  topics  listed  for  pre- 
liminary plans  should  be  discussed  with  such  further  detail  as 
more  intensive  study  makes  possible. 

Under  "  Silvicultural  management  "  the  topics  listed  for  pre- 
liminary plans  shouM  be  developed  with  much  greater  accu- 
racy and  in  much  greater  detail. 

To  secure  uniform  data  from  the  national  forests  in  each 
district,  the  district  forester  will  decide  upon  standard  field 
methods.     Standardization  will  include: 

1.  Methods  of  making  estimates  under  specified  conditions 
to  secure  results  of  uniform  accuracy. 

2.  The  unit  for  recording  estimates  in  both  surveyed  and 
unsurveyed   ground. 

3.  The  minimum  sizes  to  which  timber  will  be  estimated  and 
a  method  of  classifying  reproduction  and  young  timber  below 
this  minimum. 

4.  A  scale  for  field  and  base  maps  and  the  conditions  under 
which  contour  or  hachure  maps  will  be  made. 

5.  The  form  and  character  of  notes  on  silvicultural  ques- 
tions, forest  descriptions,  etc. 

6.  The  principles  upon  which  the  silvicultural  system,  the 
rotation,  the  period  for  which  management  will  be  planned  in 
detail,  etc. 

In  each  district,  also,  to  insure  reasonable  uniformity  under 
similar  conditions,  a  careful  study  will  be  made  of  the  methods 
of  determining  the  limitation  of  annual  cut  under  each  silvi- 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS  247 

cultural   system   which   will   be   used,    and   standard   methods 
established. 

In  the  completed  plan  the  data  secured  under  each  topic 
will  be  summarized  and  the  conclusions  stated.  The  following 
points  are  of  special  importance: 

1.  Silvicultural  systems  based  on  the  most  reliable  silvical 
data  available,  and  upon  careful  observations  on  the  part  of 
the  working-plans  officer  (i.e.,  the  forest  organizer). 

2.  A  carefully  drawn  set  of  marking  principles  (marking 
rules)  designed  to  put  into  effect  the  silvicultural  systems  rec- 
ommended. 

3.  The  maximum  annual  cut  to  be  allowed  during  the  ensu- 
ing ten  or  fifteen  years,  and  the  approximate  cuts  for  each 
period  of  the  rotation. 

4.  The  order  in  which  the  important  bodies  of  merchantable 
timber  should  be  sold. 

5.  The  order  in  which  areas  needing  artificial  restocking 
should  be  sowed  or  planted,  and  the  acreage  to  be  covered  dur- 
ing each  year  of  the  period  for  which  detailed  recommendations 
are  made. 

Under  "  Grazing,^'  technical  reconnaissance  and  special 
studies  should  be  conducted,  following  the  general  ground 
covered  under  preliminary  plans,  but  with  more  detail  and 
greater  exactness;  it  should  be  directed  as  far  as  practicable 
by  grazing  experts. 

The  permanent  improvement  plan,  protection  plan,  and  plan 
for  uses  of  forest  land  for  the  forest  should  be  considered  and 
developed  as  far  as  may  be  practicable  in  connection  with  the 
intensive  timber  estimates  and  other  investigations  conducted 
by  working-plan  parties. 

ANNUAL  PLANS 

The  annual  reports,  estimates,  and  recommendations  sub- 
mitted on  the  various  lines  of  forest  work  should  be  based  upon 
the  preliminary  or  working  plan  for  the  forest  and  should  refer 


248  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 

specifically  to  the  portions  of  the  plan  dealing  with  the  subject 
in  question.  They  should  show  how  far  it  is  feasible  to  apply 
the  plan  to  the  work  of  the  forest  during  the  current  or  ensuing 
year,  the  specific  action  proposed  to  put  its  provisions  into 
effect,  and  the  changes  which  appear  advisable. 

Annual  recommendations  on  maximum  and  minimum  stump- 
age  prices  and  limitation  of  yearly  cut  should  be  submitted  to 
the  district  forester.  These  and  the  planting  and  nursery 
reports  should  refer  to  the  portion  of  the  plan  dealing  with 
silvicuUural  management  and  indicate  any  necessary  changes  in 
its  application.  Revisions  of  the  cutting  methods  advocated  in 
the  plan  and  of  other  features  of  its  silvicultural  management 
should  be  submitted  whenever  they  appear  advisable,  together 
with  any  additional  data  secured  on  estimates,  logging  costs, 
market  conditions,  etc. 

The  annual  grazing  report  and  recommendations  constitute 
a  concise  restatement  of  the  preliminary  or  v  orking  plan  and 
its  application  to  the  business  of  the  ensu'ng  year.  Additional 
data  should  be  reported  and  necessary  changes  from  the  plan 
noted. 

In  submitting  the  annual  improvement  estimates  a  copy  of 
the  improvement  map  of  the  forest,  showing  the  plan  as  revised 
and  extended  to  date  and  indicating  the  work  of  greatest  urgency, 
should  be  furnished. 

In  connection  with  the  annual  fire  report,  the  fire  plan  for 
the  forest  should  be  checked  over  and  necessary  modifications 
noted.  The  annual  planting  and  nursery  reports  should  in- 
clude a  current  revision  and  appHcation  of  the  portions  of  the 
protection  plan  dealing  with  rodents.  Special  reports  and  revi- 
sions of  the  forest  plan  as  regards  protection  from  insects  and 
diseases  will  be  submitted  from  time  to  time  on  forests  where 
this  work  is  of  importance. 

In  connection  with  the  current  business  and  periodical 
reports  relating  to  uses  of  forest  land,  the  preliminary  or  working 
plan  should  be  steadily  revised  and  extended. 

The    application    of    the    foregoing    instructions    has    been 


THE    THEORY   AND    PRACTICE    OF    WORKING   PLANS  249 

worked  out  by  each  of  the  districts.  The  outline  for  the  plan 
of  silvicultural  management,  as  worked  out  in  the  South- 
western district,  follows:  * 

The  Method. — The  forest  management,  sales  regulations, 
and  systematic  silviculture  will  be  carried  on  by  means  of: 

1.  Card  or  sheet  records  by  supervisors. 

2.  Annual  plan  by  supervisor. 

3.  Maps  by  specialists. 

4.  An  appendix  file  by  local  force. 

5.  Preliminary  plan  by  specialists. 

6.  Final  plans.     (Not  to  be  attempted  at  present.) 

*  See  "  A  Proposed  Method  of  Preparing  Working  Plans  for  National  Forests," 
J.  C.  Kircher,  For.  Quart.,  Vol.  XII,  No.  2,  pp.  145-157.  Also  "  Development 
of  Silvicultural  Working  Plans  on  National  Forests  in  the  Southwest,"  J.  C. 
Kircher,  Proc.  Soc.  .A.m.  Fsters.,  Vol.  X,  No.  3,  pp.  259-262.  Also  "  Forest 
Service  Silviculture  Plans,"  T.  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  Proc.  Soc.  Am.  Fsters.,  Vol. 
XI,  No.  I,  pp.  1-16. 


OUTLINE  AND  INDEX 

SILVICULTURAL  CHAPTER— SUPERVISOR'S 
ANNUAL  PLAN,  19... 


NATIONAL  FOREST 19. 


(i)  General  conditions: 

(a)  General  conditions  of  the  Forest — areas  where  insect  or  fungus 
attacks  have  been  noticed;  damage  from  live  stock  and  areas 
from  which  grazing  should  be  restricted  (discuss  in  detail) ;  from 
mistletoe  or  other  causes;  discuss  extent  of  damage  and  pre- 
ventative measures  adopted  or  plarmed;  problems  presented 
by  fire 

(2)  Cost  of  handling  sales  (for  past  fiscal  year) 

(a)  Summary  of  costs  for  each  advertised  sale  during  past  field  season. 

{b)  How  have  costs  of  sales  administration  been  reduced  during  past 

year?     Suggestions  for  further  reductions 

(3)  Limitation  of  cut: 

(a)  Estimate  of  cut  in  timber  sales,  free  use,  settlement  and  trespass 

during  present  fiscal  year,  separately  for  green  and  dead  saw 
timber  and  cord-wood 

(b)  Estimate  for  coming  fiscal  year 

(c)  Reasons  for  increase  or  decrease  in  annual  cut 

(d)  Recommended  limitation  of  cut  for  saw  timber  and  cord-wood  for 

ensuing  fiscal  year  for  sales  and  free  use  separately 

(4)  Maximum  and  minimum  stumpage  prices: 

(a)  Maximum  and  minimum  prices  recommended  tor  ensuing  year. 
(If  same  as  for  present  year,  simply  say  so.)  Explain  any 
changes  fully 

(5)  Silviculture  Manual: 

(a)  Recommendations  for  specific  changes  in  the  current  Manual. . . . 

(6)  Silvical  report: 

(a)  Subject  reported  upon  last  year  by  forest  assistant 

(6)  Subject  recommended  for  assignment  during  coming  field  season; 

name  of  ofiicer  to  whom  it  should  be  assigned 

250 


THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF  WORKING   PLANS  251 

(7)  Sowing  and  planting  (omit  until  forestation  is  past  experimental  stage 

unless   reports  desired   by   Director  Fort   Valley   Experiment 
Station): 

(a)  Reports  to  be  submitted  for  all  mvestigative  or  other  projects.  . .  . 

(b)  Proposed  sowing  and  planting  projects — give  location,  acreage, 

method   of   forestation,   etc.     If   investigative   projects   follow 
outline  prescribed  under  investigative  projects 

(8)  Timber  sale  policy: 

Suggested  modifications  of  existing  policy  in 

(a)  Marking— rules  and  system  of  cutting 

(6)   Brush  disposal 

(c)  Contract  requirements 

(d)  Utilization 

(e)  Miscellaneous 

(9)  Seed  collecting  (to  be  submitted  August  i  of  each  year  on  special  sheet): 

(a)  Amount  and  kind  of  seed  needed 

(b)  Amount  and  kind  of  seed  which  is  abundant 

(c)  Recommendations  for  seed  collecting 

(10)  Working  plan  modifications: 

{a)  Where  a  preliminary  plan  has  been  approved,  recommend  neces- 
sary modifications,  so  that  it  may  be  corrected  and  amended  to 
conform  with  the  requirements  of  the  next  fiscal  year.  (This 
should  be  in  shape  to  fit  into  the  loose  lead  plan) 

(11)  Converting  factors: 

(a)  Any  necessary  changes  in  current  converting  factors 

(12)  Free  use: 

(a)  Policy  and  specific  plans 

(b)  Demand 

(c)  Complications  which  have  arisen  in  free  use  administration  dur- 

ing past  year  with  recommended  changes  and  methods 

{d)  Areas  closed  against  free  use;  need  for  additional  areas  with 
complete  report  on  each 

(13)  Current  timber  sales: 

(a)  List  of  newspapers  in  which  timber  sale  advertisements  should  be 
inserted  during  next  fiscal  year 

(14)  Timber  trespass: 

(a)  Brief  report  on  all  unclosed  cases  of  record  giving  action  neces- 
sary to  complete  settlement 

(15)  Common  and  technical  names  of  tree  species  discovered  on  forest  during 

past  year  and  not  already  catalogued 

(16)  Timber  reconnaissance: 

(a)  Required ;  reasons  why 

(6)  Costs  estimated 


252  THE   THEORY   AND   PRACTICE   OF   WORKING   PLANS 


(17)  New  sales: 

(a)  Areas  which  should  be  sold  and  why 

(b)  Possible  purchasers 

(c)  Action  necessary  to  promote  sales 

(18)  Protection  of  timber  resources: 

(o)  Necessary  road  withdrawals  which  were  omitted  when  land  was 
recommended  under  the  Act  of  June  11,  1906 

(b)  Mill  sites  which  should  be  withdrawn  from  entry  under  the  Act 
of  June  1 1 ;  give  location  and  area,  and  necessity  for  withdrawal 

(19)  Stock  excluded  areas: 

(a)  Recommendations  with  full  explanation  for  timber  sale  areas 
from  which  stock  of  specified  classes  should  be  excluded  to  pre- 
vent unusual  damage  to  reproduction.  (See  paragraph  6, 
Form  771a) 

(20)  For  each  sale  submit  estimate  of  unburned  slash;  acres  which  must  be 

burned  (reduce  fire  lines  to  acreage  basis);  cost  of  burning  per  acre; 
percentage  which  can  be  disposed  of  by  regular  force;  additional 
allotment  required  (to  be  submitted  on  September  ist  of  each  year) . 

(21)  Investigative  projects  (to  be  submitted  November  ist  of  each  year): 

Special  studies  recommended  for  consideration  by  the  District  Inves- 
tigative Committee;  give  details  of  new  studies  recommended,  i.e., 
purpose  and  need,  showing  relative  importance,  general  scope  and 
method,  and  probable  cost 

(22)  Correction  of  watershed  or  logging  unit  estimates  on  Form  S  15  which 

follows ,,,,,,, 


THE   THEORY  AND  PRACTICE   OF  WORKING  PLANS  253 

Form  S  15  (Forest  and  District) 

CUMULATIVE  REPORT  OF  STAND  (BY  LOGGING  UNITS)  IN  M.B.M. 


Watershed. . . 
Logging  Unit . 

Stand  10 


District 

Forest 

Forest  plan  division. 
19. ... 


Cut. 

Loss. 

Net 
Stand. 

Cut. 

Loss. 

Net 
Stand. 

Yellow  pine 

White  fir 

Engelmann  spruce. .  .  . 
Miscellaneous 

Total 

To  be  cut per  cent 

To  be  left per  cent 

No.  of  cords  = 

Per  cent  of  error  in  estimates. 


Cut. 

Loss. 

Net 
Stand. 

Cut. 

Loss. 

Net 
Stand. 

Yellow  pine 

White  fir 

Engelmann  spruce. .  .  . 
Miscellaneous 

Total    . 

To  be  cut per  cent 

To  be  left per  cent 

No.  of  cords  = 

Per  cent  of  error  in  estimates. 


PttOPERTY  LIBRARY 


%i   r*    Ci 


INDEX 


Abnormal  forests,  regulation  of,  137 

Administrative  divisions,  42 

Administrative  plan,  instructions  for,  240,  246 

outline  for,  157,  234 
Age  classes,  defined,  14 

in  selection  forest,  14 

record  of,  15 

table  of,  49 

table  of,  in  Austria,  219,  222 
Allotment  methods  (see  period  methods). 
Allowed  annual  cut  (see  regulation  of  cut). 

Amenagement  (see   working  plans,   practice  of,  in  France)    (syn.   forest  organ- 
ization). 
American  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  121 
Anderson,  C.  R.,  22 
Annual  plans  (see  working  plans,  also  cutting  plan  and  planting  plan). 

instructions  for,  in  United  States,  247 
Area,  determination  of  cut  by,  69 
Area  table,  49 
Auhagen,  119 
Austrian  formula,  determination  of  cut  by,  78,  216 

Base  lines  (see  also  timber  estimates),  23 

Bentley,  J.,  Jr.,  58 

Betriebsklasse  (see'working  group). 

Block  (see  also  division  of  area),  38,  41 

Border  cutting  (see  selection  border  cutting). 

Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  forest  organization  in,  216 

Breymann's  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  86 

Bryant,  R.  C,  37 

Brush  disposal,  place  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  marking  rules),  151 

Bukowina,  forest  organization  in,  216,  221 

Bureau  of  Forestry,  226 

Chapman,  H.  H.,  17,  37,  68,  121 
Character  index,  185 

Clearcutting  with  artificial  reproduction  (see  silvicultural  method  of  manage- 
ment). 

255 


256  INDEX 

Clearcutting  with  natural  reproduction  (see  silvicultural  method  of  manage 

ment). 
Collection  of  data  (see  forest  survey). 
Compartment  (see  also  division  of  area),  38 
Control  and  revision  (see  working  plans,  control  and  revision  of). 
Control  book,  165 

in  Austria,  223 

in  Prussia,  177 
Coppice,  55, 

I  with  standards,  55 

Correlation  of  silvicultural  methods  and  methods  of  determining  the  cut,  126 
Cotta,  Heinrich,  119,  126,  194 

Coupes  (see  also  determination  of  cut,  in  France,)  212 
Current  annual  increment,  3 

Cutting  and  logging  rules,  place  of  in  working  plan,  152 
Cutting  and  planting  record  (see  control  book). 
Cutting  cycle,  69 

record  of  in  working  plan,  151 
Cutting  plan,  130,  133 

annual,  136,  152 

general,  134,  152 

in  Bavaria,  189 

in  France,  212 

in  Prussia,  173 

place  of  in  revisions,  167 

place  of  in  working  plan,  152 
Cutting  series,  132 

defined,  41 

in  Saxony,  196 

Department  of  Agriculture,  226 

Secretary  of,  237 
Determination  of  cut,  67 

by  area,  69 

by  area  and  volume  by  age  classes,  108,  no,  112 

by  area  and  volume  by  periods,  116,  121 

by  area  and  volume  for  entire  forest,  106 

by  volume  on  diameter  classes,  100 

by  volume  on  growing  stock,  72,  74 

by  volume  on  growing  stock  and  increment,  78,  81,  85,  86,  88 

by  volume  on  increment,  74 

in  Austria,  221 

in  France,  92,  209,  212 

in  United  States,  234 

record  of  in  working  plan,  151 

review  of  methods,  124 


INDEX  257 


Determination  of  cut,  summary  of  methods,  67,  91 

Diameter  class,  defined,  14 

Diameter-class  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  100 

application  to  America,  105 
Diameter-class  record,  15 
Dimitz,  L.,  216 

Direct  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  108 
Distribution  of  the  age  classes,  i,  14 

advantages  of  comparison  between  actual  and  normal,  19 

graphic  comparison  of  actual  with  normal,  18,  19 

record  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  tables),  147,  168 
Distribution  of  cut,  129 

in  France,  211 
District  Forester,  236 
Division  of  area,  37 

block,  38,  41 

boundaries  of,  40,  42 

coincidence  with  administrative  divisions,  42 

compartment,  38,  40 

defined,  37 

designations  of,  39 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  203 

in  Austria,  216 

in  Bavaria,  182,  185 

in  France,  208 

in  Prussia,  174 

in  Saxony,  194 

principles  of,  37 

record  of  in  working  plan,  150 

subcompartment  (lot),  38,  39 

working  group,  38 

working  unit,  38 

Eberhard,  200 

Economic  rotations  (see  rotation). 

Eldredge,  I.  F.,  143 

Endres,  61,  62 

Estimates  (see  timber  estimates). 

Felling  age,  58 

Felling  budget  (see  cutting  plan);  in  France,  212 

Fernow.  B.  E.,  6,  61,  62 

Final  cutting  (see  shelterwood  method) . 

Financial  rotations  (see  rotation). 

Fire  plan  (see  forest  protection  plan). 

Fischer,  13 


258  INDEX 

Flury,  9,  lo,  ii 
Forest  description,  29 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  204 

in  Austria,  218,  220 

in  France,  209 

outline  for,  29 

record  of  in  working  plan,  149 

unit  of,  32 
Forest  management,  defined,  xiii 
Forest  organization 

control  of,  in  Austria,  216 

in  Bavaria,  191 

in  Prussia,  176 

in  Saxony,  194 

in  United  States,  228,  236,  237,  245,  248 
definition  of,  xiii 
Forest  organizer  (see  forest  organization). 
Forest  plan,  see  Introduction,  xiii 

section  of  National  Forest  Manual,  237 

instructions  in,  238  et  seq. 

issued,  237 
Forest  protection  plan,  instructions  for,  239,  243,  247,  248 

outline  for,  157,  232 
Forest  regulation,  xiii  (syn.  forest  organization). 
Forest  rent  (see  financial  rotations). 
Forest  Service,  27,  39,  226 
Forest  survey,  20 

Formula  methods  (see  determination  of  cut). 
Forsteinrichtung  (syn.  forest  organization,  which  see). 
French  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  92 
Frey,  126 


Gayer,  C,  57 

Graves,  Henry  S.,  3 

Grazing  management,  plan  of,  instructions  for,  239,  241,  247,  248 

outline  for,  157,  231 
Greeley,  W.  B.,  139 

Group  method  (see  clearcutting  with  natural  reproduction). 
Group  selection  method  (see  selection  method). 
Growing  stock,  actual,  6 

in  working  plan,  147 

normal,  i,  2,  7 
Guise,  C.  H.,  138 
Gurnaud,  106 
Guzman,  E.,  221 


INDEX  259 


Hammatt,  R.  F.,  27 

Hanzlik,  E.  J.,  8 

Hartig,  G.  L.,  118,  124,  172 

Heyer's  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  88 

application  to  America,  90 

Heyer,  Carl,  90 

Heyer,  Gustav,  90 

use  in  Alsace-Lorraine,  205 

use  in  Baden,  199,  201 
High  forest,  defined,  55 
Hufnagl's  method  of  determining  cut,  100,  108,  no 

by  age  classes,  108,  no 

by  diameter  classes,  100 

formula  for  determining  the  cut,  no 
application  to  America,  in 
Huffel,  207 
Hundeshagen's  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  85 

Illick,  J.  S.,  42 
Increment,  borer,  use  of,  4 

current  annual,  3 

defined, 3 

determination  of,  3 

determination  of  cut  by,  74 

importance  of,  67 

mean  annual,  3 

normal,  3 

periodic  annual,  3 

price,  3 

quality,  3 

record  of  in  working  plan,  147 

volume,  3 
Index,  per  cent,  195 

Indian  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  98 
Irish,  E.  J.,  80 

Jagen,  39  (see  also  working-plans  practise,  Prussia). 
Judeich,  Friedrich,  79,  84,  85,  89,  112 

Kameraltaxe  (see  Austrian  formula). 
Karl's  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  81 
Kircher,  J.  C,  249 
Kirkland,  B.  P.,  138,  139 

Limitation  of  annual  cut  (see  regulation  of  cut). 
Logging  and  milling,  methods  and  costs,  outline  for,  33 


260  INDEX 

Logging  conditions,  outline  for  summary  of,  37 
Logging  unit  (see  also  block),  41,  54 
Lorey,  T.,  57,  84,  89,  120,  173 
Lot  (see  subcompartment) . 

Management,  class  (see  working  group), 
object  of,  53,  54 
record  of  in  working  plan,  150,  156 

silvicultural,  xiii 

silvicultural,  method  of,  53,  55 

correlation  with  methods  of  determining  cut,  1 26 
record  of  in  working  plan,  150,  156 
Manual  of  procedure,  236 
Maps  and  tables  (see  also  tables),  42 

in  working  plan,  147 

of  stands  to  be  cut  (see  also  cutting  plan),  131 

sample  sketch  map,  44,  45 
MargoHn,  L.,  25 

Markets,  influence  of  on  sustained  yield,  53 
Market  unit  (see  also  working  unit),  54 
Marking  rules,  place  of  in  working  plan,  151,  247 

general,  235 
Martin,  Heinrich,  67,  79,  84,  120 
Mason,  G.  Z.,  27 

Masson,  Methode  de,  determination  of  cut  by,  3,  74 
McCarthy,  W.  J.,  8 
Mean  annual  increment,  3 
Meinecke,  E.  P.,  64 

M6thode  de  1883  (see  French   method),  determination  of  cut  by,  92 
Methode  du  controle,  determination  of  cut  by,  106 
Method  of  treatment,  determination  of,  53 
Moore,  Barrington,  78,  92,  98,  226,  227,  237 
Munger,  T.  T.,  12 
Muret,  106 

National  forest  manual,  237 
National  forests,  226,  227,  234 
New  reconnaissance,  the,  227 
Normal  age  class  distribution,  i 
Normal  forest,  defined,  i 
Normal  growing  stock,  i 
Normal  increment,  i 

Office  of  forest  management,  227,  236 
Office  of  silviculture,  236 
Organization  (see  forest  organization). 


INDEX  261 

Paulsen  (see  also  Hundeshagen),  86 

Period  methods,  determination  of  cut  by,  ii6 

area-period  method  (syn.  area  framework,  "  flachenfachwerk  "),  n? 
area-and-volume-period  method   (syn.  combined  framework,  "  kombiniertes 
fachwerk  "),  119 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  204 

in  Austria,  221 

in  Baden,  199 

in  Bavaria,  181 

in  France,  209 

in  Prussia,  172 

in  Saxony,  194 

in  Wurttemberg,  197 
volume-period  method  (syn.  volume  framework,  "  Massenfachwerk  "),  118 
Period  of  reproduction,  record  of  in  working  plan  (see  also  method  of  manage- 
ment, silvicultural),  151 
Periodic  annual  increment,  3 
Permanent  improvement  plan,  instructions  for,  239,  243,  247,  248 

outline  for,  157,  233 
Planting  plan,  159 

annual,  160,  162 

general,  160,  161 

place  of  in  revisions,  166 

place  of  in  working  plan,  157 
Preliminary  plans,  in  Austria  (Bukowina),  216 

in  United  States,  240 
Preparatory  cuttings  (see  shelterwood  method). 
Pressler's  formula,  use  of,  4,  76 
Price  increment,  3 
Prussia,  practice  of  working  plans  in,  171 

Reconnaissance  (see  forest  survey  and  timber  estimates). 

defined,  20 

estimates,  method  of,  26 

section  of,  227,  235,  236 
Regulation,  in  selection  forest,  Alsace-Lorraine,  205 

in  special  cases,  137 

of  transition  forests,  139 

of  turpentine  forests,  142 

of  wood-lots,  141 

of  cut,  defined,  66 

record  of  in  working  plan,  151,  157,  250 

unit  of,  53 
Removal  cuttings  (see  shelterwood  method). 
Reproduction  period  (see  period  of  reproduction). 
Reser\e  seed  tree  method  (see  seed  tree  method). 


262  INDEX 

Reserve  tree  method  (see  reserve  seed  tree  method). 
Revisions  (see  working  plans,  control  and  revision  of). 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  206 

in  Austria,  222 

in  Baden,  199 

in  Bavaria,  190 

in  Prussia,  179 

in  Saxony,  196 
Rotation,  53,  58 

choice  of,  63 

defined,  58 

economic  rotations,  59 

financial  rotations,  61 

in  Austria,  222 

in  Bavaria,  186 

in  Prussia,  175 

record  of  in  working  plan,  151 

technical  rotations,  59 
Roth,  F.,  19,  28,  37,  39,  42,  55,  58,  61,  62,  65,  120,  126 

Sale  policy,  234,  236,  251 

Schneider's  formula,  use  of,  4,  75 

Schwappach,  A.,  61 

Section  of  reconnaissance,  227,  235,  236 

Seed  cutting  (see  shelterwood  method). 

Seed  tree  methods  (see  silvicultural  method  of  management). 

Selection  border  cutting  (see  selection  method) . 

Selection  method  (see  silvicultural  method  of  management). 

Shelterwood  group  method  (see  shelterwood  method) . 

Shelterwood  method  (see  silvicultural  method  of  management). 

Shelterwood  strip  method  (see  shelterwood  method). 

Silvicultural  management,  plan  of,  instructions  for,  239,  240,  246,  248 

outline  for,  156,  229,  249 

system  (see  silvicultural  method  of  management). 
Silvicultural  method  of  management,  55 
of  high  forest,  56 

clearcutting  with  artificial  reproduction,  56 

clearcutting  with  natural  reproduction,  56 

seed  tree  methods,  56 

selection  method,  56 

shelterwood  method,  57 
Soil  rent  (see  financial  rotations). 
Stand  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  112 

application  to  America,  116 

table  (see  also  tables),  46,  47 
Status  records,  50,  166 


INDEX  263 


Stock  table  (see  also  tables),  46,  48 

Strip  method  (see  clearcutting  with  natural  reproduction). 

Strip  surveys  (see  also  timber  estimates),  24 

Strzeleckis,  13 

Stuart,  R.  Y.,  238 

Stumpage  rates,  minimum,  235,  236 

place  of  in  working  plan,  152,  250 

outline  for  appraisal  of,  37 

standard,  236 
Subcompartment  (see  also  division  of  area),  38,  39 
Subdivisions  of  a  forest  (see  also  division  of  area),  38 
Sur\-ey  of  area  (see  also  forest  survey),  21 
Sustained  yield,  application  of,  53 

defined,  xiv 

relation  to  increment,  67 

total  for  national  forests,  237 
Swiss  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  3,  74 

Tables  (see  also  maps  and  tables),  46 
age-class  table,  49 

examples  of,  51,  52 
area  tables,  49 

general  stand  table,  example  of,  50 
in  Austria,  220 
place  of  in  working  plan,  147 
instructions  for  tabulations.  United  States,  245 
stand  table,  46,  47 
stock  table,  46,  48 
Tassy,  208,  211 

Technical  rotation  (see  rotation). 
Timber  estimates,  22 
base  lines,  23 
cost  of,  28 
in  Austria,  218 
in  Bavaria,  184 
in  United  States,  228,  253 
ocular  estimates  (see  also  reconnaissance),  26 
requisites,  22 
size  of  crew,  24 
the  strips,  24 
time  of,  27 
Timber  Sur%'ey  Manual,  237 
Topographic  Survey  Manual,  237 
Tourney,  J.  W.,  160 
Transition  forest,  regulation  of,  139 
Turpentine  forest,  regulation  of,  142 


264  INDEX 

Unit  of  regulation,  53 

Use  per  cent  (see  Hundeshagen's  method). 

Uses  of  forest  land,  instructions  for,  259,  243,  247,  248 

outline  for  plan  of,  158,  232 
Utilization,  record  of  in  working  plan,  253 


Volume  increment,  3  • 

Volume  rate  per  cent,  201 

Von  Grebe,  119 

Von  Klipstein,  119 

Von  Mantel's  method,  determination  of  cut  by,  3,  72,  276 

Von  Stockhausen,  119 

Wagner,  C,  173 

Ward,  K.  O.,  106 

Wirtschaftsganzes  (see  working  unit). 

Wood-lots,  regulation  of,  141 

Woolsey,  T.  S.,  Jr.,  207,  213,  236,  249 

Working  block  (see  working  group). 

Working  circle  (see  working  group). 

Working  group,  38 

Working  period,  152,  164,  245 

Working  plans 

conference,  21,  167,  192 

record  of  in  plan,  146,  156,  167,  245 
control  and  revision  of,  164 
defined,  xiii 
documents,  144 

contents  and  form,  144 
foundations  of,  i 
outlines  for,  152 

American  outline,  suggested,  155 
administrative  plan,  157 
appendix,  contents  of,  158 
forest  protection  plan,  157 
foundation,  156 
grazing  plan,  157 
maps,  156 
orientation,  155 

permanent  improvement  plan,  157 
recommendation,  156 
regulation,  157 
uses  of  forest  land,  158 
Forest  service  outline,  228 
Prussian  outline,  153 
Saxon  outline,  154 


INDEX  265 


Working  plans  (con.) 
practice  of,  171 

in  Alsace-Lorraine,  202 

in  America,  226 

instructions  for,  238 

in  Austria,  213 

in  Baden,  198 

in  Bavaria,  181 

in  France,  207 

in  Prussia,  lyi 

in  Saxony,  193 

in  Wurttemberg,  197 

resume  of,  in  Europe,  224 
scope  of,  xiii 
sphere  of,  xiv 
Working  Plan  Manual,  238 
Working  plans  officer  (see  forest  organizer). 
Working  plan  unit  (see  working  unit). 
Working  section  (see  working  group). 
Working  unit,  38,  53,  245 

Yield,  defined,  66 
Yield  tables,  defined,  4 

use  of  in  estimating,  28 


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pasture  values,  natural   history,  growth  requirements   and  life  processes  of 
vegetation  as  related  to  forage  production ;  and  pastural  botany. 

Shade- Trees  in  Towns  and  Cities. 

By  William  Solotaroff,  B.S.,  Late  Secretary  and  Superintendent  of  the 
Shade-Tree  Commission  of  East  Orange,  N.  J.  xviii+287  pages.  6  by  9. 
46  full-page  plates  and  35  figures  in  the  text.     Cloth net,  $3.50 

Takes  up  the  questions  of  the  selection,  planting  and  care  of  trees  as  ap- 
plied to  the  art  of  street  decoration ;  their  diseases  and  remedies ;  theii 
municipal  control  and  supervision. 

Field  Book  for  Street-Tree  Mapping. 

By  William   Solotaroff,  B.S.     160  pages.     4J/2  by  7^.     Each,   $1.25 

net.    One  dozen net,  $12.00 

Blank  field  books  for  enumerating  street-trees  when  taking  a  tree  census. 

Handbook  for  Rangers  and  Woodsmen. 

By  Jay  L.  B.  Taylor,  formerly  Forest  Ranger,  United  States  Forest 
Service,  ix+420  pages.  4J4  by  6^.  236  figures.  Flexible  "Fabrikoid" 
binding net,  $3.00 

A  guide  for  inexperienced  men  in  woods  work,  and  for  others  whose  work 
or  recreation  takes  them  into  rough  and  unsettled  regions. 

Seeding  and  Planting  in  the  Practice  of  Forestry. 

By  James  W.  Toumey,  M.S.,  M.A.,  Morris  K.  Jesup  Professor  of 
Silviculture,  Yale  University.  xxxvi+45S  pages.  6  by  9.  140  figures. 
Cloth    net,    $4.00 

A  manual  for  the  guidance  of  forestry  students,  foresters,  nurserymen, 

forest  owners,  and  farmers. 

Handbook  of  Field  and  Office  Problems  in  Forest  Mensuration. 

By  Hugo  Winkenwerder,  Dean,  College  of  Forestry,  University  of 
Washington,  and  Elias  T.  Clark,  Associate  Professor  of  Forestry,  Uni- 
versity of  Washington.  ix+133  pages.  5  by  7j^.  Flexible  bind- 
ing   net,  $2.00 

A  series  of  carefully  selected  type  exercises  prepared  as  an  aid  to  the 
laboratory  instruction  in  forest  mensuration,  which  may  be  used  as  practical 
illustrations  to  supplement  recitation  and  textbook  work. 


The  Valuation  of  Amei'ican  Timberlands. 

By  K.  W.  Woodward,  Professor  of  Forestry,  New  Hampshire  State  Col- 
lege,   vii +253  pages.    6  by  9.     13  figures.     Cloth net,  $3.00 

This  book  supplies  valuable  information  needed  by  the  investor,  timber 
cruiser  and  student  of  forestry.  It  gives  for  the  continental  United  States 
and  its  outlying  territories,  Hawaii  and  the  Canal  Zone  excepted,  the  prin- 
cipal facts  regarding  the  timber  resources. 

French  Forests  and  Forestry — Tunisia,  Algeria,  Corsica.    With  a  Trans- 
lation of  the  Algerian  Code  of  1903. 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.,  M.F.,  Executive  Member  of  the  Inter- 
allied War  Timber  Committee,  1917-1919,  Paris,  France;  formerly  Lec- 
turer, Yale  Forest  School.    xv-|-238  pages.    6  by  9.    Illustrated.     Cloth. 

net,  $3.00 

The  results  of  a  study  of  the  more  important  phases  of  forest  practice  in 
Corsica,  Algeria,  and  Tunisia,  setting  forth  the  essentials  of  method  which 
may  be  applied  directly  in  the  United  States. 

Studies  in  French  Forestry. 

By  Theodore  S.  Woolsey,  Jr.  Two  chapters  by  William  B.  Greeley, 
formerly  Chief  of  the  Forestry  Section,  Engineers,  A.E.F.,  Tours,  France, 
and  now  Chief  Forester,  U.  S.  Forest  Service,  vii+550  pages.  6  by  9. 
Profusely   illustrated    net.   $6.00 

This  general  book  on  French  forestry  is  of  interest  to  students,  practicing 
foresters,  lumbermen,  estate  owners,  and  all  members  of  the  10th  and  20th 
Engineers  (Forestry)  A.  E.  F. 

Forest  Protection. 

By  D.\viD  T.  Masox,  Forest  Engineer.     (In  Preparation.) 
Shows  how  the   facts  and  principles  developed  by  entomologists,  patholo- 
gists, and  others  may  be  applied  in  a  businesslike  way  to  the  protection  of 
forests. 


